Philosophy (week 1 - 6) full

What is philosophy, and what is its purpose?

Love of wisdom; questioning fundamental beliefs to gain knowledge and understanding.

What is autonomy?

The ability to form beliefs independently using your own reasoning.

What is Plato's Allegory of the Cave about?

Escaping ignorance and false beliefs to discover truth and understanding.

What do the chains, shadows, and sun symbolize?

Chains: limiting beliefs. Shadows: illusions. Sun: truth and knowledge.

Why do the prisoners reject the freed prisoner?

They resist unfamiliar truths that challenge their existing beliefs.

What are the four characteristics of philosophy?

An activity; difficult; aims at freedom; examines basic assumptions.

What is unthinking conformity?

Accepting beliefs simply because others believe them.

What is an assumption?

An underlying belief accepted without questioning it.

What is critical thinking?

Evaluating beliefs using logic, evidence, and alternative perspectives.

What are the seven steps of critical thinking?

Identify, clarify, find assumptions, examine evidence, consider alternatives, conclude, assess consequences.

What is speculation?

Forming ideas without sufficient evidence or logical support.

What did Perictione believe philosophy studies?

The underlying principles and purposes of everything that exists.

What are the three traditional branches of philosophy?

Epistemology: knowledge. Metaphysics: reality. Ethics: morality.

What does epistemology examine?

Knowledge, truth, certainty, and how beliefs can be justified.

What does metaphysics examine?

Reality, existence, free will, the mind, and the nature of being.

How did Stenstad distinguish two approaches to truth?

Theoretical: one correct truth. Anarchic: openness to multiple perspectives.

What is determinism?

The belief that events and human actions result from prior causes.

What was d'Holbach's view of free will?

Human actions are determined by previous causes; genuine freedom is an illusion.

What was Viktor Frankl's view of freedom?

People retain freedom to choose their attitudes and responses to circumstances.

What was Radhakrishnan's view of karma and freedom?

Past actions shape circumstances, but we can make choices that influence our future.

What is a philosophical argument?

Premises (supporting reasons) offered to establish a conclusion.

What is the difference between a premise and a conclusion?

Premise: supporting reason. Conclusion: the claim those reasons support.

What is a claim?

A statement that can be judged true or false.

What is the difference between vague and ambiguous claims?

Vague: imprecise meaning. Ambiguous: multiple possible meanings.

What makes an argument logically valid?

If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

What did the Oracle at Delphi say about Socrates?

Nobody was wiser than Socrates, prompting him to investigate others' wisdom.

What is Socratic wisdom?

Recognizing what you do not know rather than falsely claiming knowledge.

What were the accusations against Socrates?

Corrupting Athens' youth, rejecting its gods, and introducing new divine beings.

How did Socrates defend himself against Meletus?

He challenged contradictions and argued he would not intentionally corrupt others.

What is the main message of Socrates' Apology?

Examine your life, pursue truth, and value moral integrity over fear of death.

What is the feminist criticism of the traditional view?

It labelled men rational and women emotional, then used that logic to justify men ruling women.

What is Genevieve Lloyd's concern?

Calling women rational can still devalue emotions; praising their emotions can still keep them subordinate.

What does Wollstonecraft argue?

ANSWER NOT RECOVERED FROM ORIGINAL CARD — check handwritten cards.

What are Confucius's main ideas?

Ren: kindness. Li: proper conduct. Reciprocity: treat others as you want to be treated.

What does Nietzsche argue in his readings?

God is dead; will to power = drive for power; master morality = strength/pride; slave morality = humility/kindness.

What evidence for evolution does the reading discuss?

Similar species, bones, and embryos.

How does Darwin challenge the traditional view?

Reason evolved, and humans may have no built-in purpose.

What are Darwin's three main ideas?

Variation, struggle, and selection. Inherited differences affect survival and reproduction.

What is inference to the best explanation?

The explanation that best fits the evidence is probably true.

What makes an explanation strong?

Compare alternatives; fit known facts; explain more; show how; keep assumptions to a minimum.

What does Sartre mean by "existence precedes essence"?

You exist first, and your choices shape who you become.

What are bad faith, anguish, abandonment, and despair?

Bad faith: denying your freedom. Anguish: feeling responsibility for your choice. Abandonment: no divine guidance. Despair: do not count on things you cannot control.

Why does Plato think the soul has different parts?

Our motivations conflict: e.g., thirst urges drinking while reason warns that the water is unsafe.

What are Plato's three parts of the soul?

Reason: judgment. Appetite: bodily desires. Spirit: anger, pride, and affection.

What produces justice and happiness for Plato?

Harmony: reason rules, spirit supports it, and appetite follows.

What are Plato's Forms?

Perfect, eternal, unchanging realities. Physical things are imperfect copies.

What is Plato's theory of recollection?

Learning is remembering Forms the soul knew before birth.

What objection challenges Plato's argument about the soul?

Understanding eternal things does not prove that the mind is itself eternal.

What is Aristotle's highest human good?

Being happy and flourishing.

What is Aristotle's mean?

The appropriate response between excess and deficiency, guided by reason and circumstance.

Give an example of Aristotle's mean.

Courage is between cowardice and rashness.

What are Aristotle's four causes?

Material: made of what? Formal: what structure? Efficient: produced by what? Final: what purpose?

How does Augustine adapt Plato?

Plato's immortal soul, plus God: Forms are in God's mind, and we need God's help to choose good.

How does Aquinas adapt Aristotle?

The soul gives the body its form and survives death. Our highest happiness is knowing God.

What is the difference between validity and soundness?

Validity: if premises are true, the conclusion must follow. Soundness: valid argument with true premises.

What are the four categorical statement forms?

All dogs are pets; No dogs are pets; Some dogs are pets; Some dogs are not pets.

What is a categorical syllogism's middle term?

The category appearing in both premises but not the conclusion.

What are the textbook's four syllogism rules?

Distribute the middle term; do not broaden terms in the conclusion; no two negative premises; a negative premise needs a negative conclusion.

Which categorical terms cover their whole category?

ANSWER INCOMPLETE IN ORIGINAL TRANSCRIPTION — check handwritten card.

What is psychological egoism?

The view that all intentional actions ultimately seek a benefit for oneself.

What is altruism?

Acting for someone else's good, for their benefit.

How does Morris explain helping behaviour?

Helping may have evolved because it protected shared genes. This does not necessarily mean our motives are selfish.

What does Mercer claim?

Every intentional action involves expecting a self-regarding benefit, like pleasure or approval.

What is the main objection to Mercer?

Having a desire does not necessarily mean serving your own benefit; you could also want something selflessly.

What did Albert Camus see as philosophy's most urgent question?

Whether life has meaning and is worth living. He thought this mattered more urgently than abstract philosophical problems.

Why did Leo Tolstoy initially think life was meaningless?

He feared death would erase his achievements, family life, and everything people worked for, even though he was successful.

According to Terry Eagleton, what does "the meaning of life" ask about?

Whether life has significance, purpose, value, and direction—not the dictionary definition of the word "life."

Why did A. J. Ayer say the meaning-of-life question was meaningless?

As a logical positivist, he held that it was neither a logical truth nor a factual question verifiable through observation.

How did Thomas Aquinas explain the meaning of human life?

Humans are part of God's larger plan; their ultimate purpose is to know and be united with God.

How did Tolstoy eventually find meaning in life?

Through religious faith, which connected temporary human existence to an infinite reality and inspired him toward humble, merciful living.

What was Kurt Baier's criticism of the theistic response?

If people exist merely to serve God's assigned purpose, they may be treated as tools rather than as ends in themselves.

What was Kai Nielsen's objection to God giving us a purpose?

Someone else having a purpose for your life does not prove that your life is meaningful to you.

According to Hegel, how can a person find meaning?

By helping history progress toward greater recognition and realization of human freedom.

According to Marx, how can a person find meaning?

By contributing to economic and social progress toward a classless society free of capitalist exploitation.

What are two criticisms of finding meaning through human progress?

History includes war and decline, so progress is uncertain; even genuine progress may not involve goals everyone personally values.

What does nihilism claim about life's meaning?

Life has no inherent or objective meaning.

Why did Schopenhauer consider life meaningless?

Unmet desires cause suffering; satisfied desires bring only brief relief followed by boredom or new needs.

What does Richard Taylor's story of Sisyphus show?

Endless, repetitive labour with no lasting achievement can seem objectively pointless.

How could Sisyphus have subjective meaning according to Taylor?

If he genuinely wanted to push rocks, the activity could feel meaningful to him even without an objective purpose.

What is the difference between objective and subjective meaning?

Objective meaning does not depend on personal choice; subjective meaning depends on what a person chooses or values.

What two things does R. M. Hare say give life subjective meaning?

Choosing goals that direct your life and believing those goals are valuable and worth pursuing.

What are Kierkegaard's three ways of life?

Aesthetic: pleasure and enjoyment. Ethical: moral duty and integrity. Religious: faith and commitment to God.

What is Kierkegaard's "leap of faith"?

A personal commitment to religious belief despite uncertainty and without complete rational proof.

What did Sartre say gives life meaning, and what is a main objection?

We create meaning by choosing our values and commitments. Critics say we must see something as valuable before choosing it.

What is determinism?

Everything we do is caused by past events and conditions. Our choices are not truly free.

What do determinists believe about moral responsibility?

Since we cannot freely choose our actions, we are not ultimately morally responsible for them.

What did Clarence Darrow argue in the Leopold and Loeb case?

Their actions were caused by their genetics and upbringing, so they should not be held fully responsible.

What did Laplace believe about human actions?

If we knew every cause and law of nature, we could predict all future actions.

What did John Hospers believe controls our actions?

Unconscious desires and motivations control our behaviour, even when we think we're choosing freely.

What is libertarianism?

Humans have free will and can make choices different from what they actually choose.

What did Jean-Paul Sartre believe about freedom?

We are free to make our own choices and are responsible for our actions.

How does Sartre explain why humans are free?

Our minds can imagine a different future and choose to act toward it instead of simply following our past.

What is "bad faith" according to Sartre?

Pretending we have no choice to avoid taking responsibility for our actions.

What is the "human condition" according to Sartre?

We have limits we cannot control, but we are free to choose how we act within those limits.

What did Simone de Beauvoir believe about freedom?

Women must overcome social restrictions and recognize their freedom to define their own lives.

What did the brain experiment suggest about free will?

Brain activity could predict a simple choice several seconds before a person became consciously aware of deciding, suggesting free will might be an illusion.

What is compatibilism?

The belief that free will and determinism can both be true.

What did Thomas Hobbes believe freedom means?

Being able to do what you want without outside forces physically stopping you.

What did Walter Stace believe makes an action free?

An action is free when it comes from your own desires or thoughts, rather than outside forces.