African Americans during the New Deal

Situation in 1932

African Americans- Those in the North could vote but faced de-facto segregation, economic and social discrimination. Lynching was not uncommon though it had declined from its peak in the Gilded Age. In the South, segregation and voting restrictions were in place. Black unemployment was double the white rate.

Native Americans- Had been granted citizenship and the vote in 1924, but some states restricted this. Being forcibly assimilated and having their culture attacked- very poor living conditions on reservations.

Women- Got the vote nationwide in 1920, women had been involved in the prohibition campaign, some had experienced the roaring 20s and Margaret Sanger was campaigning on birth control but there were divisions about whether to pursue an ERA or not. 'Separate spheres' were very much in place.

Workers- The Great Depression led to huge unemployment (25 percent in 1933), strikes and sit ins were on the rise. 10 percent of workers were unionised, and employers could sack workers that went on strike.

Impact of The Great Depression on Black Americans 1929-1933

Tens of thousands of Southern black farmers left the land as crop prices plummeted. Many black farmers migrated to the cities, but urban black unemployment ranged between 30 and 60 percent. The black unemployment rate was between four and six times higher than that of whites. Desperate whites were moving into lower paid jobs, previously dominated by black people, such as domestic service, street cleaning, garbage collection and bellhops.

White organised vigilante groups such as the Black Shirts of Atlanta attempted to prevent black employment.

Unskilled black workers were usually 'last hired and first fired.' There was no effective social security. The percentage of black-owned property in Harlem fell from 35 percent in 1929 to 5 percent in 1935, while median income for skilled workers fell by 50 percent between 1929 and 1932.

Development of Workers Rights (Progress Made)

The National Industrial Recovery Act (1933) encouraged fair treatment of workers (including better pay and safer conditions). By 1934, 557 codes had been agreed by joining companies, covering 23 million workers.

In 1935 the National Labour Relations Act provided unions with guaranteed collective bargaining. It went on to be approved by the Supreme Court in 1937. Employer spies were banned as was blacklisting. The National Labour Relations Board could reinstate workers who had been sacked wrongfully.

Union membership rose from 3.7 million in 1933 to 9 million in 1938. Big companies like GM, Chrysler and US steel all accepted unions.

Fair Labour Standards Act of 1938 created, for most professions, a minimum wage of $25 per week and banned child labour.

Roosevelt's Fair Employment Practices Committee attempted to tackle racial discrimination in the workplace. (1941)

Developments of Workers Rights (Problems that remained)

Parts of the NRA were declared unconstitutional in 1935 by the Supreme Court.

Divisions in unions were still present- AFL excluded unskilled workers (e.g. AFL vs CIO). The Congress of Industrial Organisation did accept unskilled workers.

A number of unskilled workers had no leadership or voice, such as agricultural workers.

Ethnic minorities continued to face discrimination. New Deal policies evicted many Black and Hispanic Americans off the land and made them into working migrants.

The position of women in the workplace did not improve. The National Industrial Recovery Act upheld a lower minimum wage for women compared to men.

New Deal for African Americans (Help Part 1)

Black people started to vote Democrat, at much higher rates- suggesting they were benefiting from the New Deal.

200,000 jobs were provided by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC).

Some Government Agencies helped black people as much as they did white people. The National Youth Administration taught 500,000 African American children skills, with a fair distribution of money. The Workers Progress Administration employed 350,000 black people in each year of its four year existence. It employed 5,000 highly skilled black workers and taught ¼ of a million black people literacy. Racial quotas on black people gave more opportunities for African Americans.

The New Deal did respond to black criticism, it provided more relief for Harlem after the riots of 1935.

New Deal for African Americans (Help Part 2)

Agencies of the New Deal altogether employed 1 million black people and provided 50,000 public houses for black people.

The first national system of benefits created by the Social Security Act helped many black people. (1935)

Nearly 50 black Americans were promoted to senior positions in the government, Mary Mcleod Bethune was made the director of Negro Affairs in the National Youth Administration.

More federal intervention would lead to progress for African Americans in the future.

Eleanor Roosevelt gave high profile support for African Americans, e.g. black voters rights and anti lynching bills.

New Deal for African Americans (Problems Part 1)

The minimum wage introduced by the Fair Labour Standards Act did not apply for agriculture and domestic work, where 75 percent of black workers were employed.

Administration during the New Deal .(particularly in the South) was often racist, ensuring blacks received fewer benefits, jobs, pay and welfare. In Atlanta FERA unemployment relief gave ⅓ less to black people.

Social security coverage excluded black dominated jobs like domestic servants, waiters and janitors.

New Deal for African Americans (Problems Part 2)

Segregation remained unchallenged, as did refusing the black vote in the South (only 3 percent of black people were registered to vote in the South during Roosevelt's Presidency.) The Supreme Court case Breedlove vs Suttles, in 1937, upheld the Georgia poll tax. Roosevelt was keen to not alienate Southern Democrats and therefore didn't push for desegregation.

A congressional attempt to pass a federal anti-lynching law was defeated in 1938, FDR refused to support it.

FEPC dismissed ⅔ of discrimination cases.

Native Americans and the Indian New Deal

Preserved Indian culture through the Indian Reorganisation Act (1934).

Indians were given more influence in the running of reservations.

The Indian New Deal curtailed the sale of Indian land, unallocated land lost between 1900-1930 was promised to be restored to tribes. Boosted funding for the Indian Arts. It improved access to higher education for Native American women. Some New Deal resources were used on reservations, building schools, hospitals etc.

John Collier was made Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1933, giving Native Americans political representation.

Impact of the New Deal on Women (Part 1)

Women held more posts under Roosevelt's government than any up until the 1990s. Some women had very high profile positions. Frances Perkins served as Secretary of Labor from 1933 to 1945. Eleanor Roosevelt most likely became the second most important political figure in the country, behind her husband.

Social Security Act (1935)- welfare benefits for poor families.

Aid to Dependent Children (1935)- Benefits to white women who were unable to work with no male head of household.

Impact of the New Deal on Women (Part 2)

The New Deal did little for women, perhaps because unlike African Americans they didn't vote as a group.

Some acts worked against them, e.g The Economy Act banned members of the same family working for the federal government- 75 percent of those who lost their jobs under this act were female.

NRA codes allowed for unequal wages. The Fair Labour Standards Act (1938) set a lower minimum wage for women than men.

Impact of the New Deal on Native Americans

John Collier reversed forced assimilation. Most Native Americans welcomed this, but those who were assimilated or on their way to being assimilated opposed.

Indian Reorganisation Act (1934) encouraged Native American culture, tribes could have their own police and legal system.

Some improvements in reservation conditions, such as in schools and hospitals occurred.

Native Americans could use New Deal agencies, but their poverty was so great it couldn't be overcome.

Opposition of the New Deal

The New Deal was quite radical in its recognition for workers and unions, along with federal government intervention in the economy- breaking from laissez-faire traditions.

The Indian New Deal and aid for African Americans was also likely to be controversial.