Kaplan Unit 2 — Articles of Confederation and Constitution

80 study cards covering the Unit 2 outline, lessons 2.1–2.6, key terms, cause and effect, compromises and beneficiaries, ratification, and Bill of Rights scenarios. Student study aid, not an official teacher answer key. Try answering before flipping each card.

Confederation

A union of states that retain substantial independent authority and delegate limited powers to a central body. Explains why states held most power under the Articles.

Constitutional Convention

55 delegates from 12 states met in Philadelphia in 1787. Called to revise the Articles, they instead produced a new Constitution. Rhode Island sent no delegates.

Virginia Plan

Two legislative houses with representation based on population. Favored large states; associated with James Madison.

New Jersey Plan

One legislative house with equal state votes, plus stronger national powers. Favored small states.

Great Compromise

Population-based House of Representatives plus a Senate with two members per state. Balanced large- and small-state interests.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Counted three-fifths of the enslaved population for House representation and direct taxation. Increased slaveholding states' House and Electoral College influence without granting enslaved people rights.

Payments in kind

Payments using goods or labor rather than money. Appealed to cash-poor farmers; creditors preferred dependable money.

War bonds

Government debt certificates promising repayment. Cash-strapped original holders sometimes sold cheaply; later purchasers could benefit from repayment.

Federalism

Power divided between national and state governments. Think levels of government.

Republic

Government through representatives rather than a hereditary monarch. Political participation in 1787 was restricted.

Popular sovereignty

Government authority comes from the people's consent. Expressed by We the People.

Separation of powers

Different functions assigned to legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Think different jobs.

Checks and balances

Branches can limit one another. Example: presidential veto and congressional override.

Ratification

Formal approval. The Constitution required conventions in nine of thirteen states to approve it.

Executive Branch

President-led branch that carries out and enforces federal laws. The Articles lacked a separate national executive.

Electoral college

Electors formally choose the president. Each state's number reflects its House and Senate representation; the Three-Fifths Compromise therefore increased slaveholding states' influence.

Legislative Branch

The lawmaking branch, vested in Congress under Article I. Its taxation and commerce powers addressed weaknesses of the Articles.

Congress

National legislature. Under the Constitution it includes the House and Senate; under the Articles it had one house and one vote per state.

House of Representatives

Population-based chamber; members serve two-year terms. Gave populous states more representation.

Senate

Two members per state, serving six-year terms. Protected equal state representation. Originally selected by state legislatures.

Judicial Branch

Federal courts deciding cases involving federal law, the Constitution, and other constitutionally assigned matters.

Supreme Court

Highest federal court, established by Article III. President nominates justices, Senate confirms, and justices serve during good behavior.

Shays' Rebellion

1786–1787 uprising of indebted Massachusetts farmers against taxes and debt enforcement. Exposed national weakness and strengthened support for reform.

Land Ordinance of 1785

Systematic surveying and sale of western land, including land for schools. Think land survey and sale.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Government and a path to statehood for the Northwest Territory. Allowed equal standing for new states and prohibited slavery there.

Daniel Shays

Revolutionary veteran and a leader of the Massachusetts farmers' rebellion. Connected debt and tax grievances with demands for relief.

George Washington

Revolutionary commander, Convention presiding officer, and first president. His prestige helped support ratification.

Federalists

Supported ratifying the Constitution and strengthening national government. Argued effective government and constitutional checks protected liberty.

Anti-Federalists

Feared excessive national power and inadequate rights protections. Their demands helped secure the Bill of Rights.

James Madison

Major architect of the Constitution, associated with the Virginia Plan, Federalist Papers, and proposed Bill of Rights.

Alexander Hamilton

Advocate of strong national authority and coauthor of the Federalist Papers. His proposal for an executive serving for life was not adopted.

Articles of Confederation

First national governing framework, adopted in 1777 and fully ratified in 1781. Preserved state sovereignty but left Congress financially and institutionally weak.

Constitution

Drafted in 1787, reached nine-state ratification in 1788, and put into operation in 1789. Established stronger, divided, and checked federal power.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments, ratified in 1791. Protects liberties and limits federal power; fulfilled a ratification-era demand.

Why did fear of British tyranny make the Articles weak?

States retained most power and limited national taxation and enforcement to prevent another abusive central government.

Name two achievements under the Articles and explain one.

Treaty of Paris secured independence; Land Ordinance of 1785 organized land surveying and sale; Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established territorial government and statehood rules.

Which ordinance concerns statehood rather than land surveying?

Northwest Ordinance of 1787. Land Ordinance of 1785 concerns surveying and selling land.

Why could Congress declare war yet remain militarily weak?

Authority did not guarantee resources. Congress relied heavily on states for soldiers and money and could not tax directly.

Explain Shays' Rebellion as cause → event → consequence.

Debt and heavy taxes threatened farmers → farmers closed courts and rebelled → weak national response strengthened support for constitutional reform.

Why would a banker and cash-poor farmer disagree over payment in kind?

The farmer wanted to use available goods or labor; the creditor preferred reliable money and enforcement of the debt.

Who benefited if a buyer paid $20 for a $100 bond and later received $100?

The later purchaser gained the $80 difference, ignoring interest and other costs. The original holder who sold cheaply did not receive that later repayment.

Compare the Virginia Plan, New Jersey Plan, and Great Compromise.

Virginia: population-based representation. New Jersey: equal state votes. Great Compromise: population-based House plus equal-state Senate.

Did the Three-Fifths Compromise give enslaved people three-fifths of a vote?

No. It affected population counts for representation and direct taxes. It granted no voting rights.

How did the Three-Fifths Compromise affect presidential elections?

More House seats meant more electoral votes, increasing slaveholding states' influence.

Name a protection for slavery besides the Three-Fifths Compromise.

Fugitive slave clause required return of people escaping bondage; Congress could not ban international slave importation before 1808.

Classify national/state powers, three branches, and veto/override.

Federalism; separation of powers; checks and balances.

Why was the Electoral College a compromise?

Delegates disagreed about direct popular election versus selection by Congress or other officials. Electors provided an indirect selection system.

What is wrong with saying the 1787 Constitution limited presidents to two terms?

It established four-year terms without a numerical term limit. The two-election limit came much later.

Who favored national trade regulation and trusted constitutional checks?

Federalists. They wanted stronger national authority and supported ratification.

Who feared distant national power and demanded written rights protections?

Anti-Federalists. They wanted stronger safeguards against central government abuse.

What did Federalists and Anti-Federalists both care about?

Protecting liberty and creating a workable republic. They disagreed about the structure and safeguards needed.

Why did promising amendments help ratification?

It reassured skeptics that explicit rights protections would follow approval of the Constitution.

Match 1787, 1788, 1789, and 1791 to events.

Drafting/signing; required ninth-state ratification; new government begins; Bill of Rights ratified.

Match political criticism, criminal defense lawyer, and cruel punishment to amendments.

First; Sixth; Eighth.

Match self-incrimination, criminal trial counsel, and civil jury to amendments.

Fifth; Sixth; Seventh. The Fifth's grand jury is different from the Sixth's criminal trial jury.

What distinguishes the Ninth from the Tenth Amendment?

Ninth protects retained rights. Tenth reserves undelegated powers to states or people, unless prohibited to states.

Make a supported claim about who benefited most from the Convention.

Propertied groups benefited disproportionately. Many delegates owned bonds or enslaved people; debt recognition and slavery protections served those interests while excluded groups lacked equal influence.

Did the Constitution resolve the conflict between liberty and slavery?

No. It established republican principles while protecting slavery and increasing slaveholding states' political influence.

Amendment 1

Religion, speech, press, peaceful assembly, petition.

Amendment 2

Right to keep and bear arms; the text also refers to a well-regulated militia.

Amendment 3

No forced quartering of soldiers in private homes during peace without consent.

Amendment 4

Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures; warrants require probable cause and specificity.

Amendment 5

Grand jury in serious federal cases; no double jeopardy or compelled self-incrimination; due process; just compensation for public takings.

Amendment 6

Criminal prosecution rights: speedy public trial, impartial jury, notice of charges, witnesses, and counsel.

Amendment 7

Preserves jury trials in qualifying civil cases at common law.

Amendment 8

No excessive bail or fines and no cruel and unusual punishment.

Amendment 9

People retain rights beyond those explicitly listed.

Amendment 10

Powers neither delegated to the United States nor prohibited to states are reserved to states or the people.

What does We the People express?

Popular sovereignty: the people are the source of government authority.

Who wrote the Federalist Papers?

Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, to encourage ratification.

How many states were needed to ratify the Constitution?

Nine of thirteen, through state ratifying conventions.

Who presided over the Constitutional Convention?

George Washington.

Which state sent no delegates to the Convention?

Rhode Island; twelve states sent 55 delegates.

What was the original purpose of the Convention?

To revise the Articles. Delegates instead wrote a new Constitution.

House versus Senate terms

House: two years. Senate: six years. President: four years.

Who breaks a tie in the Senate?

The vice president.

What is the usual constitutional amendment process?

Proposal by two-thirds of both houses of Congress; ratification by three-fourths of the states.

Why does Article VI matter to war bonds?

It recognized existing national debts. Later policies determined repayment details.

What did the 1808 compromise do?

Prevented Congress from banning international slave importation before 1808. It did not end slavery in 1808.

Did the Constitution ban all payments in goods?

No. It restricted states from making non-gold-or-silver tender compulsory for debts. Voluntary exchanges of goods were not universally banned.