american period

Treaty of Paris (1898)

December 10, 1898 agreement where Spain formally ceded the Philippine archipelago to the United States for $20,000,000.

Mock Battle of Manila

August 13, 1898 staged conflict allowing Spain to surrender Manila to American forces rather than Filipino revolutionaries.

Benevolent Assimilation

1899 proclamation by US President McKinley framing American annexation as an act of altruistic guidance and protection.

White Man's Burden

Imperialist rationale based on Rudyard Kipling's 1899 poem framing colonization as a moral duty to civilize non-Western peoples.

Philippine-American War (1899–1902)

Conflict sparked by US annexation, turning sharply after President Emilio Aguinaldo was captured in March 1901.

Tutelage for Self-Rule

American policy launched in 1907 with the National Assembly elections, claiming to prepare Filipinos for self-governance.

Payne-Aldrich Act (1909)

Trade law allowing unlimited duty-free US goods into the Philippines while capping Philippine exports like sugar and copra.

Underwood-Simmons Act (1913)

Tariff act eliminating quota restrictions, establishing full reciprocal free trade between the US and the Philippines.

Jones Law (1916)

Legislation creating an all-Filipino bicameral legislature and promising independence once a stable government was set up.

Compadrazco System

Patronage network of Filipino political elites that dominated the civil service and political administration from 1907 to 1941.

Alfred McCoy's Political Caricatures

Collection of satirical cartoons documenting American-era urban shifts and the "sexual revolution" in the Philippines.

American Education as Colonial Tool

Public school system that, while civilizing in intent, promoted historical negationism by downplaying colonial exploitation.

Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act (1933)

Independence bill from the OsRox Mission approved by US Congress but rejected by the Philippine Legislature over base and trade terms.

Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934)

Law signed by FDR establishing a 10-year Commonwealth transition period leading to full Philippine independence.

Philippine Commonwealth Inauguration

Established on November 15, 1935, with Manuel L. Quezon as President and Sergio Osmeña as Vice President.

1935 Philippine Constitution

Foundational text creating 3 government branches, originally featuring a unicameral Assembly and 6-year presidential term.

1940 Constitutional Amendments

Re-established a bicameral Congress (Senate and House) and changed the presidential term to 4 years with one re-election.

Commonwealth Act No. 1

The National Defense Act of Dec 21, 1935, which created and professionalized the Philippine Military under US guidance.

Commonwealth Act No. 570 & EO 263

Laws designating Tagalog as the national language and mandating its use in official public transactions.

Commonwealth Act No. 586

The Education Act of 1940 that restructured primary education and expanded public schooling across the archipelago.

Parity Rights

Constitutional provision granting US citizens and corporations equal rights with Filipinos to exploit natural resources.

Legislative Act No. 4197

The Quirino-Recto Colonization Act encouraging Christian settlers from Luzon/Visayas to resettle in Mindanao without Moro consent.

Commonwealth Act No. 141

Land law declaring Moro ancestral lands in Mindanao public domain, restricting Moros to 4 hectares versus 24 for non-Moros.

Commonwealth Act No. 441

Law establishing the National Land Settlement Administration (NLSA), prioritizing Christian homesteaders in Mindanao.

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Japanese propaganda rationale framing their 1941 invasion as a movement to liberate Asia from Western colonizers.

Jose P. Laurel

President of the Japanese-sponsored Second Philippine Republic (Puppet Government) proclaimed in 1943.

HUKBALAHAP

Anti-Japanese peasant guerrilla army formed primarily by agrarian farmers in Central Luzon during World War II.

Mickey Mouse Money

Hyperinflated paper currency issued by the Japanese military administration with virtually no real purchasing power.

Treaty of General Relations (1946)

July 4, 1946 agreement where the US relinquished sovereignty over the Philippines while retaining military bases.

Manuel A. Roxas

The last president of the Philippine Commonwealth and the first president of the independent Third Philippine Republic on July 4, 1946.