1.6 + 2.1 AP Psych Test Prep Flashcards

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors and the nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from the environment. Example: Eyes receiving light waves from a computer screen or ears detecting sound waves from music.

Psychophysics

The study of the relationship between the physical characteristics of stimuli and the subjective psychological experience of them. Example: Measuring how the measured physical intensity of a lamp correlates with its perceived brightness.

Sensory Receptors

Specialized cells or neurons that detect and respond to specific stimuli in the external or internal environment. Example: Rods and cones in the eye detecting light waves, or hair cells in the cochlea detecting acoustic vibrations.

Signal Detection Theory

A framework predicting how and when the presence of a faint stimulus is detected amid background stimulation, emphasizing that detection varies with experience, expectations, motivation, and fatigue. Example: An exhausted parent sleeping through street traffic but instantly waking to a faint whimper on a baby monitor.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. Example: The softest tone a person can detect half the time during an audiometric hearing test.

Difference Threshold (Just-Noticeable Difference / JND)

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. Example: Noticing that the stereo volume has increased only after turning the knob up by three clicks.

Weber's Law

The principle that to perceive two stimuli as different, they must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant numerical amount. Example: Noticing a 5-pound difference added to a 10-pound dumbbell, but failing to notice 5 pounds added to a 200-pound barbell.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a direct consequence of constant, unchanging stimulation. Example: Forgetting you are wearing a wristwatch or no longer noticing the familiar scent of your home after several minutes inside.

Transduction

The conversion of one form of energy into another, specifically transforming physical stimulus energies into neural impulses the brain can interpret. Example: Light rays striking the back of the eye and being converted into electrochemical signals.

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light passes. Example: Dilating in darkness to allow maximum light into the eye.

Cornea

The clear, curved protective bulge at the front of the eyeball that covers internal structures and bends light to help focus. Example: The exterior surface where a contact lens is placed.

Iris

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye and regulates the aperture of the pupil. Example: Constricting in bright sunlight to restrict excessive light intake.

Lens

The transparent, flexible structure situated behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images onto the retina. Example: Thickening or flattening like an adjustable camera lens to bring near and distant objects into focus.

Retina

The multilayered, light-sensitive inner surface of the eyeball containing receptor rods and cones where transduction occurs. Example: Functioning analogously to the film or digital sensor inside a camera.

Fovea

The central focal area of the retina containing a high concentration of cones where visual acuity is highest. Example: Focusing directly on a single word on a page to read fine print clearly.

Cones

Photoreceptors clustered near the center of the retina that function best in daylight or well-lit environments, enabling fine detail and color vision. Example: Distinguishing the vibrant shades of red and green in a painting.

Rods

Photoreceptors concentrated in the outer edges of the retina that detect black, white, and gray, essential for peripheral vision and low-light vision. Example: Catching sight of a dim star in the night sky by looking slightly to the side of it.

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

The principle that the retina contains three color receptors sensitive to red, green, or blue, which in combination can produce the perception of any color. Example: Tiny clusters of red, green, and blue light elements combining on a monitor screen to display full-color video.

Opponent-Process Theory

The principle that color vision is enabled by opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black). Example: Seeing a red silhouette against a white wall after staring steadily at a bright green patch.

Hue

The dimension of color determined by the wavelength of light. Example: Distinguishing between long-wavelength red light and short-wavelength blue light.

Optic Nerve

The nerve bundle that carries neural impulses from the retina to the brain for visual interpretation. Example: Serving as the biological data cable transmitting visual signals from the eye to the visual cortex.

Blind Spot

The specific area on the retina where the optic nerve exits the eyeball, lacking photoreceptor cells. Example: A small printed dot disappearing from view when held at a specific distance from an open eye.

Feature Detectors

Specialized cortical neurons in the visual cortex that respond selectively to specific characteristics of a visual scene, such as edges, angles, lines, or movement. Example: A specific neuron firing only when a vertical line sweeps across the visual field.

Accommodation

The physiological process by which the eye's lens changes its curvature to focus near or far objects onto the retina. Example: Eyes adjusting focus when shifting gaze from a nearby notebook to a distant whiteboard.

Nearsightedness (Myopia)

A visual condition where close objects are seen clearly while distant objects appear blurry. Example: Being able to read a novel easily without glasses while struggling to read road signs.

Farsightedness (Hyperopia)

A visual condition where distant objects appear sharp while close objects appear blurred. Example: Seeing distant mountain peaks clearly while needing reading glasses to inspect a restaurant menu.

Afterimages

Visual sensations that persist or appear after a prolonged stimulus is removed, caused by photoreceptor fatigue. Example: Gazing at a green and yellow flag and subsequently seeing a red and blue flag on a blank white sheet.

Bipolar Cells

Intermediate retinal neurons that collect electrical signals from photoreceptors and pass them to ganglion cells. Example: Acting as middle-tier messengers within the layers of the retina.

Ganglion Cells

Retinal neurons whose axons bundle together to form the optic nerve and send signals to the brain. Example: Generating action potentials that travel out of the eyeball toward the thalamus.

Dichromatism

A form of partial color blindness characterized by possessing only two functional cone photopigments instead of the standard three. Example: Having difficulty distinguishing between red and green objects.

Monochromatism

A rare visual deficiency wherein only one cone pigment type functions, resulting in vision consisting primarily of shades of gray or a single hue. Example: Experiencing the world entirely in black, white, and shades of gray.

Prosopagnosia

A neurological visual disorder characterized by an inability to recognize familiar human faces while other visual object recognition remains intact. Example: Failing to recognize a close relative by facial appearance and relying instead on their voice or clothing.

Blindsight

A condition where an individual can respond accurately to visual stimuli without any conscious visual awareness, often following primary visual cortex damage. Example: Successfully pointing toward or catching a moving object while insisting one cannot see anything.

Middle Ear

The air-filled chamber containing the hammer, anvil, and stirrup that concentrates eardrum vibrations onto the cochlea's oval window. Example: Three tiny ossicles amplifying acoustic sound waves to transfer energy into fluid.

Cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear containing hair cells that transduce sound waves into nerve impulses. Example: A snail-shell-like structure where fluid ripples bend microscopic hair cells to generate hearing signals.

Inner Ear

The innermost sector of the ear containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs, responsible for hearing and equilibrium. Example: Structures that both process sound frequencies and detect head tilt.

Place Theory

The model linking perceived pitch to the specific geographic location where the cochlear basilar membrane is stimulated. Example: High-frequency sounds causing maximum wave displacement near the base of the cochlea.

Frequency Theory

The model proposing that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the sound tone. Example: A 100 Hz tone causing auditory nerve fibers to fire at 100 action potentials per second.

Volley Theory

The principle that groups of neurons alternate firing in rapid bursts to match frequencies that exceed the firing rate capacity of an individual neuron. Example: Multiple auditory neurons firing in coordinated succession to code for frequencies above 1,000 Hz.

Sound Localization

The ability to identify the spatial origin of a sound based on slight differences in arrival time and intensity between both ears. Example: Turning your head to the left because a sound reaches your left ear slightly sooner and louder than your right ear.

Amplitude

The height or energy level of a wave, determining perceived brightness in light waves and loudness in sound waves. Example: Increasing the volume knob on a speaker, which increases the height of acoustic pressure waves.

Conduction Deafness

Hearing loss resulting from physical damage or blockage in the mechanical system conducting sound waves to the cochlea. Example: Hearing loss caused by a ruptured eardrum or earwax impaction.

Sensorineural Deafness

Hearing loss resulting from damage to the cochlea's receptor hair cells or the auditory nerve fibers. Example: Permanent hearing impairment caused by prolonged exposure to loud rock concerts or industrial machinery.

Cochlear Implant

A surgically implanted electronic device that converts acoustic sounds into electrical impulses to stimulate the auditory nerve directly. Example: Restoring sound awareness in an individual with profound damage to cochlear hair cells.

Olfactory System

The sensory system for smell, wherein airborne chemical molecules stimulate nasal receptor proteins and send impulses directly to olfactory bulbs, bypassing the thalamus. Example: Inhaling the aroma of cinnamon rolls and immediately triggering a vivid childhood memory.

Pheromones

Chemical substances secreted by an organism to communicate with and trigger behavioral or physiological responses in conspecifics. Example: Ants depositing a scented chemical pathway to direct fellow colony members to a food source.

Umami

A basic taste sensation described as savory or meaty, stimulated primarily by monosodium glutamate. Example: Experiencing the savory richness of chicken broth, aged cheeses, or soy sauce.

Oleogustus

A proposed basic taste sensation triggered by non-esterified fatty acids. Example: Detecting the distinct, lingering taste profile associated with pure oils and butter.

Gustation

The chemical sense of taste capable of identifying sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and savory molecules via tongue receptors. Example: Detecting the intense sourness of lemon juice versus the sweetness of table sugar.

Supertasters

Individuals possessing an unusually high density of taste buds, experiencing taste sensations with heightened intensity. Example: Finding the mild bitterness in dark chocolate or broccoli completely intolerable.

Nontasters

Individuals with a lower-than-average density of taste buds, exhibiting significantly reduced taste sensitivity. Example: Barely noticing bitter notes in strong black coffee.

Thalamus

The brain's central sensory relay station that receives and routes sensory information to higher cortical areas, excluding the sense of smell. Example: Directing incoming visual information to the occipital lobe while olfactory signals pass directly to the olfactory bulb.

Gate-Control Theory

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks or transmits pain signals to the brain, opened by small nerve fibers and closed by large nerve fibers or central cognitive input. Example: Massaging a bumped shin to stimulate large fibers and dull the sharp aching sensation.

Phantom Limb Sensation

The perception of sensations or pain in a body part that has been surgically amputated. Example: An amputee experiencing a tingling or itching sensation in a missing hand.

Vestibular Sense

The sensory system that monitors head movement, body position, and dynamic balance relative to gravity. Example: Maintaining balance while standing on one foot or tilting your head sideways.

Semicircular Canals

Three fluid-filled loops situated within the inner ear that sense head rotation and dynamic equilibrium. Example: Feeling dizzy and disoriented after rapidly spinning around on a playground carousel.

Kinesthesia

The system that senses the relative position and movement of individual body parts and limbs. Example: Accurately touching your nose with your forefinger while keeping your eyes closed.

Perception

The cognitive process of organizing and interpreting sensory signals into meaningful objects, experiences, and events. Example: Recognizing an array of visual lines, colors, and shadows as a friend walking toward you.

Bottom-Up Processing

Sensory analysis beginning at basic physical receptors and proceeding upward toward higher cognitive integration. Example: Analyzing individual line segments and curves to identify an unfamiliar printed letter.

Top-Down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental operations, existing knowledge, context, and expectations. Example: Easily reading a sentence with misspelled words because semantic context dictates the intended meaning.

Schemas

Preexisting cognitive frameworks or mental blueprints that organize and interpret concepts and environmental information. Example: Anticipating menus, waitstaff, and payment procedures upon stepping inside a new dining establishment.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition or expectation that leads an observer to perceive certain aspects of incoming stimuli while overlooking others. Example: Interpreting a fuzzy photographic shape as a flying saucer after hearing stories of UFO sightings.

Cocktail Party Effect

The selective attention capacity allowing an individual to focus on a single speaker amid competing ambient chatter while retaining the ability to register personally meaningful cues. Example: Conversing in a bustling cafeteria and immediately turning around when someone across the room says your name.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to detect visible objects or events when conscious attention is focused elsewhere in the visual field. Example: Overlooking a person in a gorilla suit walking through a basketball game while concentrating on counting ball passes.

Change Blindness

Failing to detect visual alterations in the surrounding environment following a brief interruption or distraction. Example: Not noticing that a construction worker asking for directions was swapped with a different person while a door passed between you.

Gestalt Psychology

An approach to psychology emphasizing our natural cognitive tendency to integrate separate sensory elements into organized, coherent wholes. Example: Viewing a complete musical melody rather than just a series of disconnected acoustic notes.

Closure (Gestalt)

A perceptual grouping principle where the visual system fills in missing boundaries or gaps to perceive a complete, unified shape. Example: Viewing a set of dotted curved lines as an intact circle.

Figure-Ground

The organization of the visual field into distinct objects that stand out from their surrounding background. Example: Looking at the Rubin vase drawing and choosing to see either two dark facial profiles or a single white chalice.

Proximity (Gestalt)

A perceptual grouping principle where items placed physically close to each other are seen as belonging to the same group. Example: Viewing six vertical parallel lines as three sets of pairs rather than six isolated lines.

Similarity (Gestalt)

A perceptual grouping principle where visual items sharing visual traits like color or shape are perceived as forming a group. Example: Viewing a field of soccer players and visually grouping them into opposing teams by uniform color.

Selective Attention

The cognitive act of focusing conscious awareness onto a specific stimulus while filtering out irrelevant background noise.Example: Focusing deeply on reading an exam question while tuning out the sound of a ticking wall clock.

Visual Cliff

A laboratory testing apparatus with an apparent drop-off covered by sturdy glass, designed to evaluate depth perception in human infants and young animals. Example: An infant hesitating and refusing to crawl across a sheet of glass overlying a visible drop-off.

Binocular Cues

Depth cues that require the coordinated use of both eyes to judge distance. Example: Using binocular vision to gauge distance accurately when reaching out to catch a tossed baseball.

Convergence

A binocular depth cue involving the inward rotation of both eyes when tracking an object moving nearer to the face. Example: Feeling your eye muscles turn inward toward your nose as a pen is brought to within two inches of your face.

Retinal Disparity

A binocular depth cue that calculates distance by comparing the slightly different horizontal images cast on the two retinas. Example: Viewing 3D cinema projections where two slightly offset images produce an illusion of three-dimensional depth.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues available to either eye individually, used to perceive depth and distance in two-dimensional representations. Example: Discerning depth in a flat photograph or painting using a single eye.

Relative Clarity

A monocular cue where clearer, sharper objects are perceived as closer, while hazy objects are perceived as distant due to atmospheric scattering. Example: Viewing a distant mountain range as hazy and faint compared to nearby crisp pine trees.

Relative Size

A monocular cue where, assuming two objects are similar in actual size, the one casting the smaller retinal image is judged as farther away. Example: Viewing two cars down the street and interpreting the smaller-appearing car as being farther down the road.

Texture Gradient

A monocular cue where surfaces displaying distinct, coarse detail are judged as close, whereas surfaces with fine, dense textures are perceived as distant. Example: Walking on a cobblestone street and seeing distinct stones at your feet that blend into a smooth plane in the distance.

Linear Perspective

A monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge toward a vanishing point as distance increases. Example: Looking down a long stretch of railroad tracks that appear to merge together at the horizon.

Interposition

A monocular cue where an object that partially conceals another object is perceived as being closer to the observer. Example: Seeing an oak tree as closer than a house because its branches partially block the view of the front porch.

Perceptual Constancy

The ability to perceive familiar objects as possessing invariant shape, size, and color despite changes in sensory input such as angle, illumination, or distance. Example: Recognizing that a door remains a rectangle even when swung open and projecting a trapezoid onto the retina.

Color Constancy

Perceiving an object as retaining its color despite variations in lighting conditions that alter the wavelengths reflected from its surface. Example: Recognizing a red apple as the same red color under bright sunlight, fluorescent office lights, or dim candlelight.

Apparent Motion

The visual illusion of real motion produced by displaying a rapid succession of stationary images. Example: Watching an animated cartoon composed of hundreds of sequential drawings.

Stroboscopic Movement

A perceptual illusion of smooth motion resulting from the rapid presentation of slightly varying static images. Example: Watching a standard motion picture projected at 24 still frames per second.

Phi Phenomenon

An optical illusion of movement created when adjacent stationary lights blink on and off in rapid alternating sequence. Example: A restaurant marquee arrow appearing to move smoothly as its light bulbs blink sequentially.