PSYCH MIDTERM #1

Psychology

the scientific study of mind and behavior

Dualism

the view that the mind and body are different things

Philosophical empiricism

the view that all knowledge is acquired through experience

Structuralism

an approach to psychology that attempted to isolate and analyze the mind’s basic elements

Functionalism

an approach to psychology that emphaiszed the adpative significance of mental processes

Behaviorism

an approach to psychology that restricts scientific inquiry to observable behavior

Philosophical nativism

the view that some knowledge is innate rather than acquired

Positive psychology

the study of the things that make life worth living (happiness/wisdom etc.)

Operational definition

a description of a property in measurable terms (the # of times someone smiles in an hr)

Reliability

a detector’s ability to detect the absence of differences or changes in the magnitude of a property

Validity

the operational definition adequately describes the important features of the phenomenon being studied

Demand characteristics

those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects

Double-blind study

a study in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows how the participants are expected to behave

Random sampling

a technique for selecting participants that ensures every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample

Random assignment

a procedure that assigns participants to conditions by chance

Review board

a committee that reviews, approves, and monitors research involving human participants

Variables

properties that can have more than one value

Internal validity

an attribute of an experiment hat allows it to establish casual relationships

External validity

an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been operationally defined in a representative way

Theory

an explanation of a natural phenomenon

Dendrites

receive info from other neurons and relay it to the cell body

Cell body/ soma

largest component of neuron that coordinates the info-processing tasks and keeps cell alive

Axon

carries info to other neurons,mucles, or glands

Myelin sheath

an insulating layer of fatty material

Synapse

the junction/ region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell of another

Purkinje cells

neurons found in the cerebellar cortex that control balance, posture, and coordinated movement

Motor neurons

carry signals form the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement

Resting potential

the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane

Refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

Action potential

an electric signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron’s axon to a synapse

Receptors

parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitter and either initiate or prevent a new electric signal

Agonists

substances that mimic the actions of a neurotransmitter or hormone

L-Dopa

a chemical precursor that the brain converts into dopamine

Peripheral nervous system

the part of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles

Automatic nervous system

a set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands

Somatic nervous system

a set of nerves that conveys info between skeletal muscles and central nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system

a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations

Parasympathetic nervous system

helps the body return to a normal resting state

Forebrain

controls complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions: divided into cerebral cortex and subcortical structures

Midbrain

contains the tectum and tegmentum

tectum: orients an organism in the environment, receives stimulus input from eyes, ears, and skin

tegmentum: involved in movement and arousal, helps to orient an organism toward sensory stimuli

Hindbrain

an area of the brain that coordinates info coming into and out of spinal cord

Hippocampus

critical for creating new memories and integrating them into network of knowledge

Cerebral cortex

outermost layer of the brain and is divided into 2 hemispheres

Amygdala

plays a central role in emotional processes, formation of emotional memories

Hypothalamus

regulates body temp, hunger, thirst, sexual behavior

Neuroplasticity

adapting to changes in sensory inputs, ability to be molded

Endorphins

natural chemical messengers released by the CNS and pituitary gland to reduce pain and boost pleasure

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter that carries signals between nerve cells in brain and body to influence mood, emotions, and sleep

Acetylcholine

transmits signals between nerve cells and from nerves to muscles

Glial cells

support cells founding the nervous system

digest parts of dead neurons, provide physical and nutritional support for neurons, and form the myelin that insulates the axons of nearby neurons

Association areas

parts of brain’s cerebral cortex that connect and process info between sensory and motor area to handle complex thinking

Unconditioned stimulus

something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

Unconditioned response

a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired w/ a US

Conditioned response

a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

Extinction

the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented w/out the US

Spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

Biological preparedness

a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over other kinds

Law of effect

behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by discomfort or negative outcomes are less likely to occur again

Reinforcer

any consequence, event, or stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the chance that you’ll repeat that behavior in the future

Primary reinforcer

a naturally rewarding stimulus that fulfills a basic biological need and doesn’t require prior learning/ conditioning to be effective

Secondary reinforcer

reward/ stimulus that learns to strengthen a behavior after being paired w/ a primary reinforcer

Fixed-ratio schedule

an operant conditioning reinforcement method where a reward is given only after a specific, predictable number of responses occur

Latent learning

learning that happens w/out any immediate reward/ sign of change, only shown later when there’s a reason/ incentive to use it

Observational learning

process of learning new behaviors, skills, attitudes by watching other people

Mirror neurons

active when an animal performs a behavior such as reaching for/ manipulating object, also activated when another animal observes that animal performing same behavior

Wilhelm Wundt

early structuralism, scientific study of conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements like sensations and feelings

William James

developed functionalism, focuses on how the mind and behavior help people adapt to their environment

John Watson

behaviorism, the scientific study of observable, measurable human and animal actions rather than internal mental states

What part of the mind did Freud study?

the unconscious mind

How did Skinner perceive freewill?

a total illusion, all human behavior is strictly determined by environmental conditioning and biological history

Which schools of thought are related to Max Wertheimer, Kurt Lewin, Jean Piaget?

Gestalt psychology, cognitive psych, and constructivism

What are the requirements of the ethical code of doing research in psychology?

Informed consent, freedom from coercion, protection from harm, risk-benefit analysis, deception, debriefing

The order of the impulse traveling on the neuron

dendrites → cell body → axon → axon terminal

How do the opioids reduce pain? Are they antagonists or agonists?

opioids act as agonists that bind to and activate specific receptors in the nervous system to block pain signals

How does transcranial magnetic stimulation work?

uses brief magnetic pulses to safely change and improve electrical activity in specific parts of the brain

The differences between cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology?

cognitive neuroscience → investigates the biological and neural brain activity that produces thoughts

cognitive psychology → studies mental behavior and observable thought processes

The different specialties in psychology

clinical psychology, counseling and applied psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics, neuroscience

Effects of stress on memory

acute stress → releases adrenaline and cortisol that can sharpen memory for emotional/ dangerous events

• hard to recall neutral facts

chronic stress → keeps cortisol levels high over time

• wears down hippocampus, leading to trouble learning, focusing, and remembering

The role of association areas

association area: composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex

• interpret info extracted by primary areas to make sense of what’s being perceived

Implicit learning

learning that takes place independent of awareness of both the process and the products of info acquisition