Chapter 8: Respiratory System

nas/o

nose

rhin/o

nose

pharyng/o

pharynx

laryng/o

larynx

trache/o

trachea

bronch/o, bronch/i

bronchus

bronchiol

bronchiole

phren/o

diaphragm

pleur/o

pleura

pulm/o, pulmon/o

lung

pneumon/o

lung

pneum/o, pneumat/o

air, gas; respiration, lung

spir/o

breathing

-pnea

breathing

-oxia

level of oxygen

-capnia

level of carbon dioxide

-phonia

voice

Upper respiratory tract components

Consists of the nose, throat (pharynx), and larynx.

Lower respiratory tract components

Consists of the trachea, bronchial tree, and the lungs.

Upper respiratory infection (URI)

Infection affecting the upper part of the respiratory system (head cold or common cold), specifically the sinuses and throat.

Lower respiratory infection (LRI)

A more serious infection that affects the airways and lungs, such as bronchitis or pneumonia.

Nasal mucosa function

Clears the inhaled air of pollutants through its filtration system and keeps the nasal cavities moist.

Alveoli (singular: alveolus)

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gases are exchanged between the atmosphere and blood during respiration; means a small hollow or cavity (also applies to a tooth socket).

Nose respiratory functions

Takes in air through the nostrils, warming, purifying, and dampening it as it enters the nasal cavity.

Cilia (Nose)

Hair-like structures that project dirt and foreign matter toward the pharynx for expulsion.

Sputum

Material that is eliminated from the respiratory tract by coughing or clearing the throat.

Nasal septum

The divider that separates the right and left nasal cavities.

Sense of smell location

Mediated by nerve endings housed within the nasal mucosa.

Paranasal sinuses

Four pairs of mucous-membrane-lined cavities that drain into each nasal cavity: frontal, maxillary, sphenoid, and ethmoid.

Pharynx regions

Three distinct regions: Nasopharynx (superior, behind nasal cavity), Oropharynx (middle, behind mouth), and Laryngopharynx (inferior, behind larynx).

Palatine tonsils location

Located on each side of the soft palate in the oropharynx.

Adenoids (Pharyngeal tonsil) location

Located in the nasopharynx.

Lingual tonsils location

Small masses of lymphoid tissue located at the very back of the tongue.

Larynx

Also known as the voice box; located just below the pharynx, holds the vocal folds/cords, and is composed of nine pieces of cartilage.

Thyroid cartilage

The largest cartilage piece making up the larynx, commonly known as the Adam's apple.

Glottis

The space between the vocal cords located below the epiglottis; cords change shape as an individual speaks to assist pitch/speech production.

Epiglottis

A cartilaginous structure useful during swallowing that stops food and liquids before they enter the trachea.

Trachea

Also called the windpipe; allows passage of air from the nose/mouth to the bronchi, reinforced by C-shaped rings of cartilage to prevent collapse.

Tracheal bifurcation

The lower end of the trachea where it splits into left and right primary bronchi.

Carina

A ridge of cartilage located precisely at the tracheal bifurcation.

Right bronchus anatomy

Shorter and wider primary bronchus tube leading into the right lung; divides into three secondary bronchi.

Left bronchus anatomy

Primary bronchus tube leading into the left lung; continues to divide into two secondary branches.

Bronchioles

Smaller subdivisions of the bronchial tubes developed from tiny tubes; serve as small air passageways.

Alveolar ducts

Minuscule pipes formed by the further subdivision of bronchioles, resembling a cluster of grapes that lead to alveoli.

Lung lobe counts

The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung has only two lobes.

Pleura

A double-layered membrane that surrounds the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity.

Parietal pleura

The outermost surface of the pleural membrane, bound to the partition of the thoracic cavity.

Visceral pleura

The innermost surface of the pleural membrane, bound directly to the side of the lungs.

Pleural space

A very slim space between pleural layers filled with a fluid-like substance to allow ease of lung expansion during breathing.

Pulmonary ventilation

The scientific term for breathing; the act of taking air into (inspiration) and releasing it from (expiration) the lungs.

Breathing regulation center

An unconscious task regulated entirely by the center of the brainstem.

Eupnea

Refers to a normal, healthy respiratory rate and breathing pattern.

Hyperventilation

A very rapid breathing pattern, occasionally occurring from conscious voluntary attempt, exertion, or psychological influences.

Hypoventilation

The act of deep or slow and shallow respirations.

Dyspnea

Forced or difficult breathing; often clinically connected to hypoventilation.

Inspiration mechanics

The inhalation phase where the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, while intercostal rib muscles contract to pull upward and outward.

Expiration mechanics

The exhalation phase driven by the relaxation of the diaphragm and elastic recoil of tissues, lessening thoracic volume and escalating pressure.

COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)

A chronic inflammatory lung disease causing obstructed airflow from the lungs; irreversible damage presenting with dyspnea, wheezing, or chronic cough.

Chronic Bronchitis

Persistent inflammation of the lungs and bronchi featuring constant coughing with sputum, wheezing, and chest pain; progressed and worsened over time.

Emphysema

A lung condition causing shortness of breath where the inner walls of the alveoli break down, erode, and separate to create larger, inefficient air spaces.

Influenza

A viral respiratory infection causing fever, cough, headache, and malaise; annual vaccination is recommended for everyone aged >= 6 months.

Lung cancer types

Classified into two major groups: Small cell lung cancer (exclusively in heavy smokers, less common) and Non-small cell lung cancer (umbrella term for adenocarcinoma, large cell, and squamous cell carcinoma).

Metastatic lung cancer prognosis

When lung cancer spreads beyond the lungs to organs like the brain or bones, it is considered incurable; treatment shifts to palliation and extending life.

Pleural effusion

Accumulations of fluid within the pleural space, classified as transudates or exudates; treated via thoracentesis, chest tubes, or pleurectomy.

Pneumonia

An infection affecting one or both lungs causing the air sacs (alveoli) to become inflamed and fill with fluid or pus.

Four classifications of pneumonia

Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), Hospital-acquired pneumonia, Healthcare-acquired pneumonia, and Aspiration pneumonia.

Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP)

The most common pneumonia type, contracted outside healthcare facilities; can originate from bacteria (Streptococcus), fungi, or viruses (COVID-19).

Hospital-acquired pneumonia

Pneumonia contracted while admitted to the hospital for another illness. Serious due to potential antibiotic resistance in already ill individuals, with ventilator patients at very high risk.

Healthcare-acquired pneumonia

A bacterial infection transpiring in individuals residing in long-term care facilities or receiving care in outpatient clinics (e.g., kidney dialysis centers); often caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Aspiration pneumonia

Pneumonia occurring when food, drink, vomit, or saliva is inhaled into the lungs; more likely if the normal gag reflex is disturbed by brain injury, swallowing problems, alcohol, or drugs.

Respiratory Failure

A life-threatening impairment of oxygenation, carbon dioxide elimination, or both, due to impaired gas exchange or decreased ventilation. Manifestations include dyspnea, accessory muscle use, tachypnea, tachycardia, diaphoresis, cyanosis, altered consciousness, obtundation, arrest, and death. Diagnosed via clinical evaluation, ABGs/VBGs, and chest x-ray; treated in an ICU with oxygen/ventilatory assistance.

Adenoids

Lymphoid tissue located in the nasopharynx, also called the pharyngeal tonsil.

Alveoli

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs between the atmosphere and blood in respiration (singular: alveolus); also applies to a small cavity or a tooth socket.

Bleb

A small collection of air between the lung and the outer surface of the lung (visceral pleura), usually found in the upper lobe of the lung.

Bronchiole

One of the smaller subdivisions of the bronchial tubes.

Bronchus

One of the larger air passageways in the lungs that begins as two branches of the trachea and subdivides within the lungs.

Carbon dioxide

A gas produced by energy metabolism in cells and eliminated through the lungs.

Commissure

A point or line of union or junction between two anatomical parts; in the respiratory system, the junction of the oral cavity and nasal cavity.

Cytology

A diagnostic examination of a single cell type, often found in fluid specimens.

Decubitus

The posture adopted by a person who is lying down.

Epiglottis

A leaf-shaped cartilage that covers the larynx during swallowing to prevent food or liquids from entering the trachea.

Ethmoidectomy

The removal of infected tissue or bone in the ethmoid sinus that blocks natural drainage.

Glottis

The space below the epiglottis; the opening between the vocal folds.

Hemostasis

The stopping of an unnatural flow of blood.

Infundibulum

A funnel-shaped cavity or structure; includes the passage between the right ventricle leading to the pulmonary artery.

Innominate artery

An artery that supplies blood to the right arm, head, and neck directly from the aorta.

Larynx

The enlarged, superior portion of the trachea that contains the vocal folds; also known as the voice box.

Loculated

The process of being divided into compartments by septa.

Lungs

A pair of organs located within the rib cage containing elastic sacs with passages, acting like branches to draw air in.

Maxillary sinus

A type of paranasal sinus located in the maxillary bones in the cheek area next to the nose, lined with mucus-secreting cells to prevent drying.

Meatus

A passage or opening leading to the interior of the body.

Mediastinoscopy

A procedure in which a tube is inserted into the chest to view tissues and organs in the area between the lungs, breastbone, and heart.

Nose

The prominent structure between and slightly below the eyes that serves as the entrance to the respiratory tract and contains the olfactory organ.

Oxygen

A colorless, odorless reactive gas and the life-supporting component of the air.

Paranasal sinuses

Air-filled cavities around the nose including the frontal, maxillary, sphenoid, and ethmoid sinuses.

Pleural Effusion

A buildup of fluid between the layers of tissue (pleura) that line the lungs and chest cavity.

Pleurodesis

A procedure that obliterates the pleural space by sticking the lung to the chest wall, preventing recurring fluid or air accumulation.

Pneumonia

An infection that inflames the lungs' air sacs (alveoli).

Pneumothorax

An accumulation of air leaking into the pleural space between the lung and chest wall, pushing on the lung and causing it to collapse.