abnormnal psych exam 3

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What are the two main categories of mood disorders?

• Unipolar disorders: depressive disorders without manic episodes.

• Bipolar disorders: disorders involving manic or hypomanic episodes, often alongside depression

2. What is the difference between bipolar I and bipolar II?

• Bipolar I: At least one full manic episode.

• Bipolar II: Hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes, but no full manic episode.

What is Persistent Depressive Disorder?

A chronic, longer-lasting form of depression that is generally less severe than major depressive disorder.

4. What are the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder (MDD)?

• At least 5 of 9 symptoms.

• Symptoms present for at least 2 weeks.

• At least one symptom must be depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure.

• Symptoms cause significant distress or impairment.

• Symptoms are not due to substances or a medical condition

5. What are the nine symptoms of MDD?

1. Depressed mood.

2. Loss of interest or pleasure.

3. Weight or appetite changes.

4. Insomnia or hypersomnia.

5. Psychomotor agitation or retardation.

6. Fatigue or loss of energy.

7. Worthlessness or excessive guilt.

8. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions.

9. Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide.

6. What is the difference between emotional, cognitive, motivational, and physical symptoms of depression?

Emotional symptoms include feelings of sadness or hopelessness; cognitive symptoms involve negative thinking patterns; motivational symptoms relate to a lack of drive to engage in activities, and physical symptoms can manifest as fatigue or changes in sleep and appetite.

What was the major change introduced by DSM-III?

It introduced more specific, symptom-based diagnostic criteria, including the two-week duration requirement and five-of-nine symptom requirement. This moved psychiatry away from psychoanalytic explanations and toward a medical, symptom-based model

8. What was the bereavement exclusion?

Answer: A DSM rule that prevented an automatic MDD diagnosis following the death of a loved one, recognizing that grief can be a normal response to loss.

9. What happened to the bereavement exclusion in DSM-5?

Answer: It was removed. Someone can now meet MDD criteria following the death of a loved one, although grief is still recognized as a normal human experience.

10. What did Wakefield and Horwitz argue about depression and grief?

They argued for distinguishing complicated depression from uncomplicated depression, so normal sadness and grief would not automatically be classified as mental disorders.

What did Mojtabai (2011) find about bereavement-related depression?

Answer: Bereaved individuals generally had less impairment, less comorbidity, less severe symptoms, and less treatment than people with other forms of depression.

12. What did Wakefield and Schmitz find about recurrence?

Answer: Uncomplicated depression had a recurrence rate similar to people who had never been depressed and lower than other forms of MDD.

13. What are the major criticisms of DSM-5's approach to depression?

• It may classify normal sadness as a disorder.

• The two-week requirement may be too short.

• MDD includes many different combinations of symptoms.

• Different causes and presentations may be grouped under one diagnosis.

14. What are the major depression specifiers discussed in your notes?

Melancholic features, anxious distress, mixed features, atypical features, psychotic features, seasonal patterns, and peripartum onset

15. What characterizes melancholic depression?

Severe loss of pleasure or lack of mood reactivity, often accompanied by:

• Morning worsening of mood.

• Early morning awakening.

• Psychomotor agitation or retardation.

• Weight loss or appetite loss.

• Excessive guilt.

16. What are atypical features of depression?

Answer: Mood reactivity, meaning mood can improve following positive events, along with symptoms such as increased appetite, hypersomnia, leaden paralysis, and rejection sensitivity.

17. What are psychotic features of depression?

Answer: Delusions or hallucinations occurring during a depressive episode. They can be mood-congruent or mood-incongruent.

18. What are seasonal and peripartum patterns?

Answer:

• Seasonal: Depressive episodes associated with a particular time of year.

• Peripartum: Depression beginning during pregnancy or within four weeks after childbirth

19. What does the biological perspective emphasize?

Answer: Genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones, stress-response systems, and brain functioning.

20. What is the monoamine hypothesis?

Answer: The hypothesis that depression is associated with dysregulation of monoamine neurotransmitters, particularly serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.

21. What is the HPA axis, and how is it related to depression?

Answer: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulates the body's stress response.

The sequence is:

Hypothalamus → Pituitary gland → Adrenal glands → Cortisol.

Dysregulation and elevated cortisol have been associated with depression.

22. What is the dexamethasone suppression test (DST)?

Answer: A test used to examine cortisol regulation. Dexamethasone normally suppresses cortisol production. If cortisol is not suppressed, it may indicate HPA-axis dysregulation.

23. What is Lewinsohn's behavioral theory of depression?

Answer: Depression can result from a reduction in positive reinforcement. When people stop participating in rewarding activities, they experience fewer positive experiences, which can worsen depression.

24. What is learned helplessness?

Answer: When someone learns that they have little or no control over negative situations, they may stop trying to change their circumstances and develop feelings of helplessness.

25. What are the three dimensions of negative explanations in the reformulated learned helplessness theory?

• Permanence: Temporary vs. permanent.

• Pervasiveness: Specific vs. universal.

• Personalization: External vs. internal

What is Beck's cognitive theory of depression?

Answer: Depression is influenced by negative thinking patterns and distorted interpretations of experiences

What is Beck's cognitive triad?

Answer:

1. Negative view of yourself.

2. Negative view of the world.

3. Negative view of the future

28. What is the hopelessness theory of depression?

Answer: Negative expectations about the future, combined with the belief that negative events will have lasting and widespread consequences, can produce hopelessness and depression.

29. What does the psychodynamic perspective emphasize?

Answer: Unconscious conflicts, early experiences, and loss. Freud suggested that depression can involve anger being directed inward toward oneself.

30. What does the sociocultural perspective emphasize?

Answer: Social and environmental influences, including discrimination, stress, relationships, social expectations, and access to resources.

31. What are the major antidepressant medication categories?

Answer:

• MAOIs: Inhibit monoamine oxidase.

• Tricyclics: Affect serotonin and norepinephrine availability.

• SSRIs: Block serotonin reuptake.

• SNRIs: Block serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake

What is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?

Answer: A treatment involving controlled electrical stimulation that produces a brief seizure under medical supervision. It can be used for severe depression, particularly when other treatments have not worked.

33. What is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)?

Answer: A psychological treatment that focuses on identifying and changing unhelpful thoughts and behaviors that contribute to depression.

34. What is collaborative empiricism?

Answer: A central idea in Beck's cognitive therapy in which the therapist and client work together to examine thoughts, evaluate evidence, and develop more balanced interpretations.

35. What is the placebo effect, and why is it important in depression research?

Answer: Improvement resulting from expectations or beliefs about treatment rather than its active ingredients. Placebo-controlled studies help researchers determine whether a treatment has effects beyond those expectations.

36. What was the main finding of the Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program (TDCRP)?

Answer: Cognitive therapy was found to be comparable in effectiveness to antidepressant medication for acute treatment, according to your notes.

37. What is the difference between suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, suicide deaths, and NSSI?

• Ideation: Thoughts about suicide.

• Attempt: An effort to end one's life.

• Death: A fatal outcome.

• NSSI: Intentional self-injury without suicidal intent.

38. What are the sex differences in suicidal behavior?

Answer: Women are more likely to report suicidal ideation and make attempts, while men are more likely to die by suicide.

39. What are hopelessness and psychache?

• Hopelessness: Believing the future will not improve and that problems cannot be solved.

• Psychache: Intense psychological pain or emotional suffering.

40. What is the difference between suicidal ideation, plan, and intent?

Answer:

• Ideation: Thinking about suicide.

• Plan: Developing a way to carry it out.

• Intent: Having the desire or willingness to act.

41. What is the ideation-to-action distinction?

Answer: Suicidal thoughts and suicidal behaviors are different outcomes. Researchers study why some people develop suicidal thoughts while others transition from thoughts to attempts.

42. What are the three major ideation-to-action theories?

Answer:

1. Interpersonal Theory of Suicide.

2. Integrated Motivational-Volitional (IMV) Model.

3. Three-Step Theory (3ST).

43. What are the three components of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide?

Answer:

• Perceived burdensomeness: Believing you are a burden to others.

• Thwarted belongingness: Feeling disconnected and like you do not belong.

• Acquired capability: Becoming more capable of tolerating pain and fear associated with self-injury

44. What does the IMV model emphasize?

Answer: Defeat and entrapment. Entrapment is feeling trapped in an unbearable situation without an apparent escape.

45. What are the three steps of the Three-Step Theory (3ST)?

1. Psychological pain and hopelessness contribute to suicidal ideation.

2. Disconnection from others can strengthen suicidal desire.

3. Practical capability influences whether someone acts on suicidal thoughts.

46. What did Ribeiro's review find about predicting suicide?

Answer: Risk factors are associated with future suicidal outcomes, but their predictive power is generally modest. Suicide remains difficult to predict accurately at the individual level.

47. What are sensitivity and specificity?

Answer:

• Sensitivity: Ability to correctly identify people who experience the outcome (true positive rate).

• Specificity: Ability to correctly identify people who do not experience the outcome (true negative rate).

48. Why is suicide difficult to predict, even when someone has multiple risk factors?

Answer: Suicide has a low base rate. Even if someone has significant risk factors, most people with those factors will not die by suicide. This can produce many false positives and makes accurate individual prediction difficult.

49. What are the major suicide prevention approaches?

Answer:

• Crisis intervention and support.

• Treating mental disorders.

• Means restriction.

• Safety planning.

• Responsible media reporting.

• School-based prevention.

• Psychotherapy.

50. What are the major ethical debates surrounding MAiD and AI-related suicide?

MAiD:

• Autonomy and self-determination.

• Decision-making capacity.

• Treatment resistance and prognosis.

• Protection of vulnerable populations.

• Canada's Track 1 (reasonably foreseeable natural death) versus Track 2 (not reasonably foreseeable).

AI and suicide:

• Chatbots may reinforce harmful thoughts or behavior.

• AI interactions may be a contributing factor in individual cases.

• Your notes emphasize that a direct causal relationship has not been established