The Impact of War 1914-1922 // Part 7

What happened to women's employment during WWI?

Women entered jobs previously dominated by men because millions of men were serving in the armed forces. They worked in munitions, transport, agriculture, engineering and offices.

What was the Women's Land Army?

An organisation established in 1917 to recruit women to work in agriculture, replacing male agricultural workers who had joined the armed forces.

What was the role of women in munitions factories?

Women manufactured weapons, shells and explosives. Around one million women were employed in munitions work by 1918.

What were munitionettes?

Women who worked in munitions factories producing weapons and ammunition. They became an important part of Britain's wartime workforce.

What other organisations allowed women to contribute to the war effort?

The Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (1917), Women's Royal Naval Service (1917) and Women's Royal Air Force (1918) allowed women to undertake supporting military roles.

What was the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC)?

Established in 1917, it employed women in supporting roles such as catering, administration and transport for the British Army.

How did women's employment affect attitudes towards women?

Women's successful performance in traditionally male jobs challenged stereotypes about women's abilities and strengthened arguments for greater equality.

How did women's employment change after WWI?

Many women were expected to leave their wartime jobs so returning servicemen could regain employment. However, women's experiences had challenged traditional gender roles.

What was the Representation of the People Act 1918?

An Act which extended the parliamentary franchise to almost all men aged 21 and over and women aged 30 and over who met property qualifications.

What was the significance of the Representation of the People Act 1918 for women?

Approximately 8.4 million women gained the right to vote, although women were still subject to age and property restrictions.

What was the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918?

An Act allowing women aged 21 and over to stand as MPs in parliamentary elections.

Who was the first woman elected to Parliament?

Constance Markievicz was elected in December 1918 for Sinn Féin but did not take her seat. Nancy Astor became the first woman to take her seat in the House of Commons in 1919.

What was the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919?

An Act which removed certain legal restrictions preventing women from entering professions and undertaking public functions, including becoming solicitors and serving on juries.

What was the Restoration of Pre-War Practices Act 1919?

An Act intended to restore pre-war employment practices, which helped employers remove women from jobs taken up during the war and replace them with returning servicemen.

Why should the impact of WWI on women's equality not be exaggerated?

Although women gained greater employment opportunities and the vote, many lost their wartime jobs after 1918 and continued to experience social and economic inequality.

What does the term franchise mean?

The right to vote in parliamentary elections.

What was the position of women regarding the parliamentary franchise before 1918?

Women were not allowed to vote in general elections, although some women could vote in local elections.

What was the Representation of the People Act 1918?

It extended voting rights to almost all men aged 21 and over and women aged 30 and over who met property qualifications.

How many people could vote before and after the Representation of the People Act 1918?

The electorate increased from approximately 7.7 million to 21.4 million people.

Why did the Representation of the People Act 1918 extend voting rights to men?

Millions of servicemen had fought for Britain but did not meet the previous property qualifications. It was considered unfair to deny them the vote.

Why did women gain the vote in 1918?

Women's contribution to the war effort strengthened arguments for female suffrage. However, reform also reflected the need to recognise women's changing position in society and the pre-war suffrage campaign.

Why were women over 30 given the vote rather than all adult women?

Politicians feared that giving all women the vote would allow women to outnumber men on the electoral register. The age and property restrictions limited the number of women enfranchised.

What was the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918?

It allowed women aged 21 and over to stand for election as MPs, even though they could not all vote themselves.

What was the significance of the 1918 franchise reform?

It dramatically expanded democracy, increased the electorate to approximately 21.4 million and allowed millions of women to participate in parliamentary elections for the first time.

When did women gain equal voting rights with men?

The Equal Franchise Act 1928 gave women the vote on the same terms as men, from the age of 21.

What was the difference between the Representation of the People Act 1918 and the Equal Franchise Act 1928?

The 1918 Act gave the vote to women aged 30 and over who met property qualifications. The 1928 Act gave women the same voting rights as men aged 21 and over.

How did WWI affect trade union membership?

Trade union membership increased significantly, reaching approximately 8.3 million by 1920, as workers joined unions to protect wages and working conditions.

Why did trade union membership increase during WWI?

The expansion of wartime industries brought more workers into factories. Workers wanted protection against poor conditions, inflation and employers taking advantage of wartime demand.

What was the Treasury Agreement of 1915?

A voluntary wartime deal between the British government and major trade unions during the First World War. Its main goal was to speed up the production of weapons and war supplies (munitions) by temporarily pausing worker strikes and strict union rules until the war ended

What was dilution during WWI?

The employment of less-skilled or unskilled workers, including women, to undertake tasks previously carried out by skilled male workers, increasing wartime production.

Why did some trade unions oppose dilution?

They feared skilled workers would lose their jobs, wages and influence because employers could replace them with cheaper, less-skilled labour.

What were shop stewards?

Workers elected to represent employees within individual workplaces. During WWI, some became increasingly important in challenging employers and union leaders over working conditions.

What was the Munitions of War Act 1915?

An Act which gave the government greater control over munitions production. It restricted strikes and lockouts in controlled establishments and introduced restrictions on workers leaving certain jobs without permission.

What was the significance of the Munitions of War Act 1915 for trade unions?

It increased government control over industrial relations and restricted workers' ability to strike, demonstrating how wartime production took priority over some industrial freedoms.

How did WWI affect industrial relations?

The government relied on trade unions to maintain production, but disputes developed over wages, dilution and working conditions. Industrial unrest continued despite restrictions.

How did WWI affect the Labour Party?

Labour became more politically influential through its participation in the wartime coalition government and the growing strength of the trade union movement.

When did Labour enter the wartime coalition government?

In May 1915, Labour joined the coalition government under Asquith.

Who was Arthur Henderson?

A leading Labour politician who joined the 1915 coalition government and became an important representative of Labour during the war.

What was the significance of the Labour Party's 1918 constitution?

It reorganised the party, strengthened its national structure and introduced Clause IV, committing Labour to common ownership of the means of production.

What was Clause IV of Labour's 1918 constitution?

A commitment to common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange, reflecting Labour's socialist principles.

What was the significance of the Labour Party's 1918 constitution?

It helped transform Labour into a more organised national political party, strengthening its ability to compete with the Liberals and Conservatives.

How did the 1918 general election affect Labour?

Labour won 57 seats, establishing itself as a significant national political force and preparing the way for its eventual replacement of the Liberals as the main opposition party.

How did the war contribute to Labour's political growth?

The war increased trade union membership, strengthened Labour's national organisation and gave the party experience of government through the wartime coalition.

How did WWI change British society culturally?

The war changed attitudes towards class, gender, patriotism and authority. Mass mobilisation brought people from different backgrounds together and exposed civilians to unprecedented government control.

How did WWI affect class relations?

The war brought different social classes together through military service and shared wartime experiences. However, class divisions remained, particularly in wealth, living conditions and employment.

How did wartime employment affect class attitudes?

Working-class workers gained greater economic importance because the government depended on industrial production. However, inequality between workers and employers continued.

How did WWI affect women's social lives?

Women gained greater independence through employment, higher wages and increased responsibility, challenging traditional expectations about women's roles.

How did WWI affect entertainment and popular culture?

Cinema, music halls and popular newspapers remained important forms of entertainment. They were also used to encourage patriotism and maintain civilian morale.

What was the role of propaganda during WWI?

Propaganda encouraged recruitment, raised public morale, promoted patriotism and portrayed Britain as fighting a justified war against Germany.

What was DORA?

The Defence of the Realm Act 1914, which gave the government extensive emergency powers to control British society during WWI.

How did DORA affect everyday life?

It allowed the government to censor information, restrict public activities, control certain industries and introduce regulations intended to protect national security.

How did censorship affect British culture?

The government restricted information that could damage morale or reveal military secrets. Newspapers and other publications faced wartime restrictions.

How did the war affect attitudes towards authority?

Government control increased through conscription, censorship and economic regulation. This demonstrated that the state could intervene extensively in everyday life during a national emergency.

How did WWI affect attitudes towards war after 1918?

The scale of casualties and the experiences of soldiers created greater disillusionment with romantic ideas of warfare, influencing literature, poetry and public attitudes.

What is patriotism?

Strong support for and loyalty towards one's country, particularly during times of conflict.

How was patriotism encouraged at the beginning of WWI?

Through recruitment campaigns, patriotic posters, newspaper coverage, public speeches and appeals to defend Britain and its allies.

What was the Pals Battalion scheme?

A recruitment scheme introduced in 1914 which encouraged men from the same towns, workplaces or communities to enlist together.

Why were Pals Battalions significant?

They encouraged recruitment by allowing friends and neighbours to serve together. However, heavy casualties could devastate entire local communities.

What were white feathers during WWI?

Symbols used to shame men who were not in uniform by suggesting they were cowards, even when they had legitimate reasons for not serving.

What was the purpose of the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 in relation to patriotism?

It gave the government powers to restrict information and activities considered harmful to national security or wartime morale.

How did anti-German feeling develop in Britain?

Propaganda and wartime events encouraged hostility towards Germany. German-owned businesses and people of German origin faced suspicion and attacks.

What happened to German communities in Britain during WWI?

Many experienced hostility, discrimination and restrictions. Some German nationals were interned as enemy aliens.

What was the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915?

A German submarine sank the British passenger ship Lusitania in May 1915, killing nearly 1,200 people, including 128 Americans. It intensified anti-German feeling.

What was the impact of the sinking of the Lusitania on British attitudes?

It strengthened hostility towards Germany and was used in propaganda to portray German warfare as brutal and unjust.

How did conscription change the relationship between the British state and its citizens?

It meant the government could legally require eligible men to serve in the armed forces, significantly increasing state authority over individual lives.

What was the Military Service Act 1916?

An Act which introduced compulsory military service for single men aged 18–41 in January 1916. It was extended to married men in May 1916.

Why was conscription introduced in 1916?

Voluntary recruitment was no longer sufficient to replace military casualties and maintain the size of the armed forces.

How did patriotism change as the war continued?

Initial enthusiasm became more complicated as casualties increased, conscription was introduced and the length and conditions of the war created war weariness.

What was conscientious objection?

The refusal to undertake military service because of moral, religious or political beliefs.

What was a conscientious objector (CO)?

A person who refused to fight in WWI because they believed participating in warfare was morally or religiously wrong.

What were the main reasons men became conscientious objectors?

Religious beliefs, pacifism, socialist political beliefs and moral opposition to killing.

What was the No-Conscription Fellowship?

An organisation established in 1914 which campaigned against compulsory military service and supported conscientious objectors.

What was the Military Service Act 1916's significance for conscientious objectors?

It introduced conscription but allowed men to claim exemption if they could demonstrate a genuine conscientious objection.

What were conscientious objection tribunals?

Official bodies established to examine applications from men claiming exemption from military service on conscientious grounds.

What were the different types of conscientious objectors?

Absolutists refused all forms of military service. Alternativists accepted non-combatant work. Non-combatants refused to fight but were willing to undertake medical or other supporting duties.

What were absolutist conscientious objectors?

Men who refused to undertake any form of military service, including non-combatant work.

What were alternativist conscientious objectors?

Men who refused combat but were willing to undertake alternative civilian or non-combatant work.

How were conscientious objectors treated by society?

Many faced hostility, accusations of cowardice and social pressure because their refusal to fight was seen by some as a rejection of patriotic duty.

How were conscientious objectors treated by the government?

Some were granted exemption or assigned alternative work, while others were imprisoned when they refused military orders.

What was the Richmond Sixteen?

A group of conscientious objectors imprisoned at Richmond Castle in 1916 who refused to undertake military service.

What happened to some conscientious objectors who refused military orders?

They were court-martialled and imprisoned, and some were sent to France where they faced the possibility of military execution.

Why were conscientious objectors controversial?

Their refusal to fight challenged the widespread expectation that men should serve their country, creating conflict between individual conscience and national duty.

How does conscientious objection demonstrate the limits of patriotism during WWI?

It shows that not everyone supported the war or accepted military service, despite intense social pressure and government attempts to mobilise the population.

What were the main conditions soldiers experienced in WWI trenches?

Mud, flooding, poor sanitation, rats, lice, overcrowding, limited food and constant exposure to dangerous conditions.

What was trench foot?

A medical condition caused by prolonged exposure to cold and wet conditions, which affected soldiers who spent extended periods in flooded trenches.

What was shell shock?

The term used during WWI to describe psychological and physical symptoms experienced by soldiers exposed to the extreme stress of warfare. It is now associated with what is understood as combat-related trauma.

What caused shell shock?

The intense psychological strain of prolonged warfare, including bombardments, constant danger, exhaustion and witnessing casualties.

How did shell shock affect soldiers?

It could cause severe psychological difficulties, affecting their ability to function and return to normal life.

How were soldiers with shell shock initially treated?

Understanding was limited. Some were treated as physically or psychologically ill, while others were wrongly accused of cowardice or weakness.

What was trench warfare?

A form of warfare in which opposing armies fought from defensive networks of trenches, particularly on the Western Front.

What was life like for soldiers in the trenches?

Soldiers experienced long periods of discomfort, poor living conditions, boredom and uncertainty, alongside sudden periods of intense fighting.

How did trench warfare affect soldiers psychologically?

The constant threat of death, bombardments and prolonged separation from home created severe psychological pressure and disillusionment.

How did WWI affect soldiers' attitudes towards traditional ideas of heroism?

Many soldiers became disillusioned with the idea that war was glorious or heroic because their experiences involved prolonged suffering, mass casualties and little visible progress.

What was the significance of the Western Front?

It was the main theatre of British fighting against Germany, where trench warfare became a defining feature of the First World War.

How did trench warfare influence British literature?

It encouraged writers and poets to challenge patriotic portrayals of war and communicate the experiences, suffering and disillusionment of ordinary soldiers.

How did WWI affect soldiers after they returned home?

Many struggled with physical injuries, psychological difficulties and adjusting to civilian life. The war also influenced attitudes towards military service and society.

Who were the war poets?

Poets who wrote about the First World War, often drawing on their own experiences to explore military service, patriotism, suffering and the realities of trench warfare.

Who was Rupert Brooke?

A British war poet whose work reflected early patriotic enthusiasm and idealistic attitudes towards military service.

What was Rupert Brooke's most famous war poem?

The Soldier (1914).

What was the main message of Rupert Brooke's The Soldier?

It presented dying for England as noble and patriotic, reflecting the idealistic attitudes towards war that existed in 1914.