history aqa nazi germany section 1-4 (not all of 4)

Why did revolution break out in Germany in 1918?

The failed Spring Offensive, Allied advances, food shortages and war exhaustion undermined the monarchy, while October parliamentary reforms failed to prevent unrest. The Kiel sailors' mutiny spread from 3 November, leading to Wilhelm II's abdication and the proclamation of a republic on 9 November.

How was the Weimar Republic established, and why was its beginning difficult?

After Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November 1918, Scheidemann proclaimed a republic and Ebert became Chancellor before the 11 November Armistice. January 1919 elections created a National Assembly, but association with military defeat exposed the new Republic to nationalist criticism.

Why did Ebert make the Groener and Stinnes–Legien agreements?

Fearing revolutionary disorder, Ebert secured army cooperation through the Ebert–Groener Pact of 10 November 1918, preserving the existing military leadership. The Stinnes–Legien Agreement recognised trade unions and an eight-hour working day, gaining industrial cooperation but preserving powerful traditional elites.

How did the Weimar Constitution strengthen and weaken democracy?

The August 1919 Constitution guaranteed civil rights and votes for men and women aged 20+, while proportional representation broadened political participation. However, fragmented coalitions and Article 48 emergency presidential powers created opportunities for unstable and authoritarian government.

Why did moderate political support decline between 1919 and 1920?

The SPD, Centre and DDP secured approximately 76% of votes in January 1919 but only 44.6% in June 1920 as unrest and Versailles resentment intensified. The decline weakened the Weimar Coalition and increased reliance on agreements between competing parties.

How did Versailles damage Germany and the Republic's legitimacy?

The June 1919 treaty removed German colonies and around 13% of European territory, limited the army to 100,000 and included Article 231 on responsibility for war damage. Reparations were fixed at 132 billion gold marks in 1921, encouraging the nationalist 'November Criminals' accusation against republican politicians.

Why did post-war economic and social conditions threaten Weimar?

War debts, shortages, demobilisation and rising inflation created financial hardship and weakened confidence in government after 1918. Welfare demands and declining purchasing power increased dissatisfaction, leaving the Republic vulnerable to extremist criticism.

Why did the Spartacist Uprising occur, and why did it fail?

Following the dismissal of Berlin police chief Emil Eichhorn, revolutionary socialists linked to Liebknecht and Luxemburg challenged Ebert's parliamentary government in January 1919. Freikorps suppressed the uprising and murdered both leaders on 15 January, defeating the immediate revolt but deepening left-wing divisions.

Why did the KPD and workers' councils oppose Weimar democracy?

Founded in December 1918, the KPD pursued revolutionary socialism while radical workers' councils demanded direct political and industrial control. Their rejection of parliamentary capitalism intensified conflict with the SPD and prevented a united socialist movement.

Why did the Freikorps threaten the Republic despite supporting Ebert?

Nationalist volunteer units of former soldiers opposed communism and helped Ebert suppress the Spartacists in January 1919. Their hostility towards republican democracy later contributed to right-wing instability, exposing the government's dependence on unreliable forces.

What caused the Kapp Putsch, and what did its failure reveal?

Versailles-related orders to disband Freikorps units prompted Kapp and Lüttwitz's March 1920 coup, forcing the government to flee Berlin while the army refused to intervene. A general strike defeated the putsch after four days, but military disloyalty remained a long-term institutional weakness.

Why did the Ruhr uprising of 1920 threaten Weimar?

Left-wing workers mobilised against the Kapp Putsch and formed the Red Ruhr Army, with revolutionary groups seeking greater political control. Government troops and Freikorps defeated them, restoring authority but increasing resentment towards Ebert's reliance on conservative forces.

Why did right-wing political assassinations threaten Weimar in 1921–22?

Nationalist extremists blamed republicans for defeat and Versailles, while Organisation Consul murdered Erzberger in August 1921 and Rathenau in June 1922. These attacks intimidated democratic politicians and exposed the Republic's difficulty restraining right-wing violence.

Why was the Ruhr occupied in January 1923, and what followed?

German defaults on reparations deliveries prompted French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr on 11 January 1923. Government-backed passive resistance disrupted industry and required financial support for striking workers, worsening the economic crisis.

What caused hyperinflation in 1923, and why was it significant?

War debts and money printing, intensified by Ruhr passive resistance, drove the exchange rate to approximately 4.2 trillion marks per dollar in November 1923. Savings and fixed incomes collapsed while some debtors benefited, undermining economic confidence and public trust.

Why did Hitler attempt the Munich Putsch, and why did it fail?

Exploiting hyperinflation and the Ruhr crisis, Hitler attempted a Bavarian coup in November 1923, influenced partly by Mussolini's 1922 March on Rome. Bavarian conservatives withdrew support and police defeated his march on 9 November, preventing an immediate Nazi takeover.

Why did Hitler's trial expose weaknesses in Weimar justice?

Hitler received five years for treason in April 1924 but served approximately nine months after the failed Munich Putsch. The lenient treatment of a right-wing revolutionary highlighted judicial bias and allowed Hitler to gain publicity.

How did Stresemann stabilise Germany in 1923?

Stresemann ended Ruhr passive resistance in September 1923 and introduced the Rentenmark in November to tackle financial instability. These measures restored monetary confidence and helped prepare Germany for international economic assistance.

How did the Dawes Plan improve Germany's economy in 1924?

Following the Ruhr and hyperinflation crises, the Dawes Plan reorganised reparations and provided an initial international loan of 800 million gold marks. American finance supported investment and recovery but created dependence on foreign lending.

How did German industry recover between 1924 and 1928?

American investment and industrial rationalisation modernised production, helping German industrial output exceed its 1913 level by 1928. However, unemployment persisted and foreign-loan dependence made recovery vulnerable.

Why did agriculture remain weak during the Golden Years?

Farmers faced falling agricultural prices, substantial debts and foreign competition despite improvements in industrial production. Persistent rural hardship demonstrated that Germany's economic recovery was uneven.

How did social welfare and housing improve under Weimar?

The 1927 Unemployment Insurance Act provided compulsory protection for approximately 17 million workers, while municipal housing projects such as Berlin's Hufeisensiedlung expanded accommodation. These reforms improved social provision but did not eliminate poverty or unemployment.

What did the Young Plan achieve, and why was it controversial?

Continuing Stresemann's effort to revise Versailles peacefully, the 1929 Young Plan reduced total reparations to approximately 112 billion gold marks and extended repayment. Nationalists opposed continued payments, showing that diplomatic concessions did not remove resentment over Versailles.

What were Stresemann's foreign-policy aims and methods?

Stresemann pursued international equality, reduced reparations and peaceful revision of Versailles through his policy of fulfilment. Cooperation with Britain and France improved diplomatic recognition, although Germany remained subject to military restrictions.

Why were the Locarno Treaties of 1925 significant?

Stresemann accepted Germany's western borders in October 1925 to improve relations with France, with Britain and Italy guaranteeing the settlement. This strengthened western diplomacy while leaving eastern borders open to peaceful revision.

How did League of Nations membership improve Germany's position?

Following Locarno, Germany joined the League of Nations in September 1926 and gained a permanent Council seat. This restored international recognition and diplomatic influence, although Versailles restrictions remained.

Why did Stresemann sign the Treaty of Berlin in 1926?

To preserve relations with the USSR while improving western diplomacy, Stresemann signed the April 1926 Treaty of Berlin promising neutrality if either country was attacked by a third power. This maintained German diplomatic flexibility and balanced western cooperation with Soviet relations.

How far did Stresemann succeed in ending occupation and restrictions?

Improved diplomacy helped secure Allied withdrawal from Cologne in 1926, while the Young Plan agreement helped bring forward Rhineland evacuation to 1930. Nevertheless, Germany's military restrictions remained, limiting the success of peaceful treaty revision.

Why did Hindenburg's election reveal weaknesses in Weimar democracy?

Following Ebert's death, conservative former field marshal Hindenburg won the April 1925 presidential election with approximately 48.3% of votes. His victory demonstrated continued support for traditional imperial authority despite the Republic's recovery.

Why did coalition instability continue during the Golden Years?

Proportional representation encouraged governments involving parties with conflicting priorities, causing disputes under Chancellors Luther and Marx. Müller's Grand Coalition formed in June 1928 but remained divided over welfare and economic policy.

How did women's opportunities change during the Weimar Republic?

Women's voting rights and increased urban employment encouraged the New Woman ideal of independence and changing social roles. However, unequal pay, domestic expectations and conservative opposition limited these advances.

How did modern art and architecture reflect cultural change?

Walter Gropius's Bauhaus, founded in 1919 and relocated to Dessau in 1925, promoted functional modern design. Otto Dix and George Grosz used New Objectivity to criticise war, corruption and inequality, challenging traditional artistic conventions.

How did theatre, film and entertainment change in Weimar Germany?

Brecht and Weill's The Threepenny Opera (1928) criticised capitalism, while Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) explored industrial society and class divisions. Jazz and cabaret flourished in Berlin, although conservatives criticised modern cultural experimentation.

Why was Weimar's Golden Age socially and politically fragile?

American-loan dependence and agricultural hardship limited economic recovery, while conservative groups criticised changing gender roles and modern culture. The KPD won 54 Reichstag seats in 1928 compared with the Nazis' 12, revealing continuing ideological divisions.

Why did the Wall Street Crash cause economic collapse in Germany?

Germany's dependence on American loans made it vulnerable when lending contracted after the October 1929 Wall Street Crash, reducing investment and production. The Danatbank collapse in July 1931 intensified the banking crisis and weakened confidence in the economy.

How did the Great Depression affect German society?

Business failures and declining production increased registered unemployment to approximately six million by 1932, creating poverty and pressure on welfare provision. Economic hardship undermined moderate parties and encouraged support for political extremists.

Why did Müller's Grand Coalition collapse in March 1930?

Rising unemployment caused disagreements between the SPD and DVP over financing unemployment insurance, destroying the coalition's unity. Hindenburg appointed Brüning as Chancellor, beginning increasingly presidential government without a stable parliamentary majority.

How did Brüning's economic policies contribute to political instability?

Brüning introduced deflation through tax increases, wage reductions and spending cuts between 1930 and 1932 to balance finances and pursue reparations relief. These measures intensified economic hardship and damaged confidence in democratic government.

How did Article 48 weaken democracy between 1930 and 1933?

Without a secure Reichstag majority, Brüning increasingly relied on Hindenburg's Article 48 emergency decrees to implement policy. This bypassed parliamentary opposition and normalised presidential government, weakening democratic accountability.

Why did the KPD gain support during the Depression?

Mass unemployment and dissatisfaction with capitalism strengthened the KPD's appeal among radical industrial workers. Its Reichstag seats increased from 54 in 1928 to 100 in November 1932, alarming conservative and middle-class voters.

Why did divisions between the SPD and KPD benefit Hitler?

The KPD followed the Communist International's social-fascism policy, treating the SPD as an enemy rather than a potential ally. Their hostility prevented coordinated working-class opposition to Nazi electoral growth.

How did Hitler rebuild the Nazi Party after 1925?

Following the failed Munich Putsch, Hitler refounded the NSDAP in February 1925 and organised regional Gauleiters and local branches to expand support. Mein Kampf promoted antisemitism, Lebensraum and the Führerprinzip, providing ideological direction.

How did Nazi propaganda increase electoral support?

Goebbels organised mass rallies, posters and Hitler's 1932 aeroplane campaign to portray him as a strong national leader. Promises of jobs, opposition to Versailles and national revival appealed to voters dissatisfied with Weimar.

How did the SA strengthen the Nazi movement?

Under Ernst Röhm, the SA expanded into a mass paramilitary organisation that confronted Communists and disrupted political opponents' meetings. Street violence intimidated rivals and projected Nazi strength during growing political instability.

Why did different social groups support the Nazis?

Farmers facing debt sought protection, while sections of the middle class feared communism and economic decline. Nazi promises of employment, national revival and stronger government attracted dissatisfied voters across several social groups.

How did Nazi electoral fortunes change between 1928 and 1932?

The Nazis rose from 12 Reichstag seats in 1928 to 107 in 1930 and 230 in July 1932 as the Depression weakened moderate parties. Their decline to 196 seats in November 1932 showed that electoral growth was not continuous.

Why was the 1932 presidential election important for Hitler?

Hitler challenged Hindenburg in April 1932, gaining 36.8% in the second round compared with Hindenburg's 53%. Although defeated, Hitler demonstrated substantial nationwide support and increased his political prominence.

How did Papen and Schleicher contribute to Weimar's collapse?

Papen lifted the SA ban in June 1932 and removed Prussia's SPD-led government in July, weakening democratic institutions. Schleicher replaced him in December but failed to establish sufficient political support, intensifying presidential instability.

Why did Hindenburg appoint Hitler Chancellor in January 1933?

Following Schleicher's failure, Papen persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler on 30 January 1933, believing conservative ministers could restrain him. Hitler gained the chancellorship through political negotiations despite never securing an outright electoral majority.

How did Hitler destroy parliamentary democracy by March 1933?

The Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February suspended civil liberties and enabled Communist arrests, weakening opposition before the March election. Despite winning 43.9% of votes, the Nazis secured the Enabling Act on 23 March by 444 votes to 94, allowing government without parliamentary approval.

Why did Hitler introduce Gleichschaltung in 1933–34?

Hitler sought to eliminate independent institutions and centralise power, using the April 1933 Reich Governors Law to extend Nazi supervision over German states. The January 1934 Reconstruction Law abolished state sovereignty, weakening federal independence.

How did Hitler eliminate political and institutional opposition in 1933?

Nazis destroyed independent trade unions on 2 May, banned the SPD in June and made the NSDAP the only legal party on 14 July 1933. The April Civil Service Law also excluded Jews and political opponents from many state positions, extending Nazi control over public institutions.

Why did Hitler order the Night of the Long Knives in 1934?

SA leader Ernst Röhm's ambitions for greater military influence alarmed army leaders whose support Hitler needed. Hitler ordered a purge beginning on 30 June 1934, eliminating Röhm and other perceived opponents while reassuring the army.

How did Hindenburg's death strengthen Hitler's dictatorship?

Hindenburg's death on 2 August 1934 enabled Hitler to combine presidential and chancellor powers under the title Führer. The armed forces swore personal loyalty to Hitler, strengthening his control over the military.

How did the Führerprinzip shape Nazi government?

The Führerprinzip established Hitler as supreme authority, while officials such as Göring, Himmler and regional Gauleiters exercised overlapping powers. Their rivalry encouraged officials to anticipate Hitler's wishes, strengthening his personal authority but creating administrative competition.

How did the SS become central to Nazi repression?

Himmler's SS expanded into a powerful Nazi security organisation overseeing major policing and concentration-camp operations. His appointment as chief of German police in 1936 strengthened SS influence over the regime's terror apparatus.

How did the SD and Gestapo maintain Nazi control?

Heydrich's SD collected intelligence on perceived enemies and public attitudes, while the Gestapo investigated and arrested suspected political opponents. Informants, surveillance and detention discouraged resistance, although the organisations depended partly on information supplied by ordinary citizens.

How did concentration camps and courts strengthen Nazi dictatorship?

Dachau opened in March 1933, initially imprisoning mainly political opponents outside normal legal protections. The People's Court, established in 1934, prosecuted political offences and helped undermine judicial independence.

How did propaganda and censorship influence German society?

Goebbels's Propaganda Ministry, established in March 1933, controlled radio, film and press messaging to promote Hitler and Nazi ideology. The Reich Culture Chamber regulated cultural professions and excluded unwanted artists and writers, restricting alternative viewpoints.

How did Volksgemeinschaft promote Nazi ideology and exclusion?

Nazi propaganda promoted a racially defined national community united behind Hitler, claiming to overcome class and political divisions. Jews and political opponents were excluded, revealing that Nazi unity depended on discrimination and repression.

How did Nazi policies affect workers, women and young people?

The German Labour Front replaced independent unions, marriage loans encouraged motherhood and schools promoted Nazi racial ideology. Hitler Youth membership became compulsory in 1939, extending state influence over young people's activities and beliefs.

Why did Nazi policies create conflict with Christian churches?

The July 1933 Reich Concordat regulated Catholic relations, while Nazi interference in Protestant churches encouraged the formation of the Confessing Church in 1934. Religious opposition often defended church independence rather than demanding Hitler's overthrow.

How did Communists resist Nazi dictatorship after 1933?

After the KPD was suppressed in 1933, clandestine Communist networks distributed leaflets and maintained contacts to oppose Nazi rule. Gestapo surveillance and arrests severely weakened these organisations, limiting their effectiveness.

How did Social Democrats resist Nazi dictatorship after 1933?

Following the SPD's prohibition in June 1933, exiled leaders established Sopade in Prague and gathered reports about conditions inside Germany. Underground activists distributed anti-Nazi material, but repression and surveillance restricted organised resistance.

How did religious and youth opposition expose limits to Nazi control?

Pastor Martin Niemöller resisted Nazi interference in Protestant churches and was imprisoned in 1937, while Edelweiss Pirates and Swing Youth rejected aspects of Nazi youth conformity. These activities demonstrated continuing dissent, although they rarely formed a coordinated movement to overthrow Hitler.