music evolution

topic 2 + 3 music content combined

music player

• part of a system that works only when several elements connect

1. music content

2. file of physical medium

3. transfer & mgmt

4. playback device

5. interface & headphones

3 elements of a product

• component: one element improves or is replaced while its relationships with other elements is unchanged

• architecture: relationships among elements change, even when many individual elements already exist

• boundaries: where the product ends

sony, 1999

• global walkman brand

• decades of portable audio experience

• recorded-music content through Sony Music

• proprietary storage, compression, copyright protection tech

what sony optimised

• secure transfer & rights protection

• compatibility with sony-controlled media & devices

what users had to do (sony architecture)

• use a PC & dedicated software

• convert filed & move them through protected interfaces

iTunes music store

• 2003: apple connected content, transactions, software, & devices

1. 5 major record companies

2. 200k song catalogue

3. 99 cent per song + usage rights

4. one application: buy, organise, play

5. ipod + windows reach

7 music technologies

1. gramophone

2. record player

3. 8-track

4. cassette player

5. CD player

6. MP3 / digital music files

7. cloud-based music / streaming

S-curve mechanisms

• users → network effects → more users

• producers → economies of scale → better / cheaper tech

• music catalogue → complementary goods → more users

78 rpm record

• before 1948

• recorded music already revolved around one established format

• record labels pressed their catalogues on 78s

• households & venues owned compatible players

• retailers & jukebox operaters stocked the format

• long works required several disks

why challenge an established standard (the 78s)

• the 78 rpm system worked, but its limits created an opportunity

• limits of 78 rpm

  • short playing time

  • fragile, heavy shellac

• post-war opening

  • vinyl & microgrooves → more music on one disc

  • compatibility would break

33.3 rpm LP

• made by columbia, 1948

• longer playing time

• microgroove vinyl record

• well suited to albums & classical works

• requires compatible playback equipment

1949: RCA refuses to follow

• two incompatible standards compete

• columbia vs RCA victor, 33.3 rpm vs 45 rpm, LP longer playing time vs single-disc system automatic changer

• incompatible formats

types of LPs

• 12-inch: plays at 33 rpm, 22 mins of music per side

• 10-inch: plays at 78 rpm, 3-4 mins of music per side

• 7-inch: plays at 45 rpm, 5 mins of music per side

why part of s-curve accelerated

• standards: agreed format lets manufacturers, labels, & buyers commit → less risk of backing the wrong one

• complements: players & music need each other, so more content makes the format more valuable and vice versa

• learning: producers get better & cheaper as cumulative output grows

• path dependence: early events & small advantages get amplified & locked in, so history shapes which format wins, not just which is technically best

magnetic tape

• 1930s: magnetophon

• late 1940s: broadcasting

• 1950s: studio practice

consumer problem: loose reels

• open-reel tape: user threads exposed tape by hand → bulky equipment & delicate handling restrict use in cars & portable devices

• enclosed tape: cartridge or cassette contains both reels → easier loading & tape is protected → allows mobile use

8-track

• 1965

• lear jet: cartridge tech

• motorola: equipment

• RCA: prerecorded music

• ford: car installations

compact cassette

• philips chose another strat

• defines technical specifications

• allows other manufacturers to use the format

• conditions of access on compatibility

• encourages large manufacturing ecosystem

analog formats that divided the market

• late 1970s

1. LP: home listening → large catalogue, high-fidelity use, but 30cm disc

2. cassette: recording & mobility → small, recordable, suited to portable & car use, better sound quality

3. the system: investments & complements → labels, pressing plants, retailers, & households already supported analog formats

sony vs philips

• philips: optical-disc expertise

  • experience with laser readout, disc replication, & compact optical prototype

• sony: digital-audio expertise

  • experience with PCM recording, digital processing, & error correction

sony & philips solution

• they chose one common standard → the compact disc

• joint specification

• shared technical choices

• common playback formats

• reduced uncertainty for users & complementors

what makes a technology win

• people learn from using & producing it

• more users increase its value

• complementers support it

• history constrains what happens next

• standards connect individual adoption decisions into collective outcomes