Chapter 1: The Human Body - Orientation

anatomy

the study of the structure of body

physiology

the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery

consider the operation of specific organ systems

divisions of anatomy - gross anatomy

regional - all structures in one part of the body (such as abdomen or leg)

systemic - gross anatomy of body studied by system

surface - study of internal structures as relating to overlying skin (this is where the appendix/intestine/stomach - like that)

divisions of anatomy - microscopic anatomy

cytology - study of cell

histology - study of tissues (tissue - so many cells grouped together/ look and work the same)

divisions of anatomy - developmental anatomy

traces structural change throughout life

embryology - studies from fertilization to birth ONLY ; study of developmental changes of the body from fertilization to birth

principle of complementarity

• anatomy & physiology complement each other

• function always reflects structure

• what a structure can do depends on its specific form

level of structural organization

• chemical - atoms combined to form molecules

• cellular - cells are made of molecules

• tissue - consists of similar types of cells

• organ - made up of different types of tissues

• organ system - consists of different organs that work closely together

• organismal - made up of the organ systems

necessary life functions -

? = the internal environment separated from the external environment

? = cellular level

? = organismal level

maintaining boundaries

cell membrane

skin

necessary life functions -

? = locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis), and contractility

movement

necessary life functions -

? = ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them

responsiveness

necessary life functions -

? = breakdown of ingested foodstuffs

digestion

necessary life functions -

? = all the chemical reactions that occur in the body

? = a process of breaking down complex molecules to simple ones

? = a process of making complex molecules from simple ones

metabolism

catabolism

anabolism

necessary life functions -

? = removal of wastes from the body

excretion

necessary life functions -

? = cellular and organismal levels

? = an original cell divides and produces 2 identical daughter cells (mitosis - getting taller/gaining weight)

? = sperm and egg unit to make a whole new person

reproduction'

cellular

organismal

necessary life functions

? = increase in size of a body part or of the organism

growth

survival needs -

? = needed for energy and cell building

nutrients

survival needs -

? = necessary for metabolic reactions

oxygen

survival needs -

? = provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions

water

survival needs -

? = necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates (**important for enzymatic protein function)

normal body temperature

survival needs -

? = required for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs (**b/c higher pressed makes it harder to breathe)

atmospheric pressure

? = ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment (the internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium)

homeostasis

homeostasis is maintained by which 2 body systems?

nervous system & endocrine system

homeostatic control mechanisms -

the 3 interdependent components of control mechanisms:

• ? = monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli)

• ? = determines the set point at which the variable is maintained

• ? = provides the means to respond to stimuli

receptor

control center

effector

what are the 2 types of feedback mechanism? what are those processes?

negative feedback mechanism: response —> negative feedback —> stop response

positive feedback mechanism: response —> positive feedback —> continue response

what happens during a negative feedback mechanism/loop? give examples

most popular

the output shuts off the original stimulus

examples:

• regulation of body temperature

• regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)

  • anti-diuretic hormone = to increase blood volume, retains water

what does a positive feedback loop/mechanism include?

• response enhances/exaggerates the original stimulus

• may exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect

• usually controls infrequency events like: enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin or platelet plug formation and blood clotting

blood clotting is an example of what feedback loop?

positive feedback loop

anatomical position

body standing/erect

face forward

palms forward

feet forward

arms by side

superior (cranial) and inferior (caudal)

above & below from the head respectively

ex.

• head is superior to abdomen

• navel is inferior to chin

anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal)

toward the front and back of body

ex.

• breastbone is anterior to the spine

• heart is posterior to the breastbone

medial and lateral (& intermediate)

towards midline and away from midline

between a more medical and a more lateral structure

ex.

• heart is medial to arm

• arms are lateral to chest

• collarbone is intermediate between breastbone and shoulder

proximal and distal

towards and away from origin of body part (mainly referring to limbs)

ex.

• elbow is proximal to wrist

• knee is distal to thigh

superficial (external) and deep (internal)

closer and away from body surface

ex.

• skin is superficial to skeletal muscles

• lungs are deep to skin

anterior/ventral

posterior/dorsal

body planes -

? = divides body into right and left parts

? = divides body into equal left and right parts

? = divides body into unequal left and right parts

sagittal

midsagittal

parasagittal

body planes -

? = divides body into anterior and posterior parts

frontal/coronal

body planes -

divides body into superior and inferior parts

transverse/horizontal

*how can you see both kidneys?

frontal & transverse

body cavities

cranial cavity

vertebral cavity

thoracic cavity

abdominopelvic cavity

• above hips - abdominal

• below hips - pelvic

• no line separates both

what are the 2 groups of body cavities and which cavity is both in both

ventral/anterior body cavity

• thoracic & abdominopelvic

dorsal/posterior body cavity

• cranial & vertebral

dorsal body cavities function/purpose

protects nervous system and is divided into 2 subdivisions

• cranial cavity

• vertebral cavity

cranial cavity

within the skull houses the brain

vertebral cavity

runs within the vertebral column houses the spinal cord

ventral body cavity function/purpose

house the internal organs (viscera) and is divided into 2 subdivisions:

• thoracic

• abdominopelvic

thoracic cavity

subdivided into 2 pleural cavities, mediastinum cavity, and the pericardial cavity:

• mediastinum cavity - contains the pericardial cavity and superior mediastinum

  • superior mediastinum - contains the great vessels and trachea

  • pericardial cavity - encloses the heart

• plueral cavity - each houses a lung

abdominopelvic cavity

separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped diaphragm

it is composed of 2 subdivisions:

• abdominal cavity - contains the digestive organs

• pelvic cavity - lies within the pelvic and contains the reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder

body can be separated into 4 quadrants called?

right upper quadrant RUG

right lower quadrant RLQ

left upper quadrant LUQ

left lower quadrant LLQ

abdominopelvic regions

right hypochondriac region

epigastric region (epi=up)

left hypochondriac region

right lumbar region (loin)

umbilical region (belly buttom)

left lumbar region (loin)

right iliac (inguinal) region

hypogastric region (pubic) (hypo=down)

left iliac (inguinal) region

*what is the region that is lateral to the epigastric region?

hypocondriac

organs in each subdivision

right hypochondriac region - liver and gallbladder

epigastric region - parts of stomach

left hypochondriac region - spleen & parts of stomach

right lumbar region - ascending colon of large intestine

umbilical region - small intestine

left lumbar region - transverse colon of large intestine

right iliac (inguinal) region - cecum & appendix

hypogastric (pubic) region - urinary bladder & rectum

left iliac (inguinal) region - initial part of sigmoid colon