AP Psychology: Operant Conditioning Study Guide

Flashcards reviewing core operant conditioning concepts, reinforcement/punishment rules, schedules of reinforcement, behavior modification, and key AP Psychology mnemonics.

What is operant conditioning?

A form of learning where behavior changes because of its consequences, in which an organism operates on the environment and receives feedback in the form of reinforcement or punishment.

How does classical conditioning differ from operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning involves an association between two stimuli resulting in automatic or reflexive responses, whereas operant conditioning involves an association between a behavior and its consequence resulting in voluntary or goal-directed behavior.

What were the key contributions of B. F. Skinner and Edward Thorndike to operant conditioning?

B. F. Skinner studied operant conditioning using the Skinner box/operant chamber and reinforcement schedules. Edward Thorndike formulated the Law of Effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes become more likely, while those followed by unpleasant outcomes become less likely.

What are the core rules for classifying consequences as positive/negative reinforcement or punishment?

Reinforcement increases the behavior it follows, while punishment decreases it. Positive means adding a stimulus, and negative means removing a stimulus.

What is positive reinforcement?

A consequence that increases a behavior by adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., getting $10$ dollars or earning a reward). It works best when immediate and contingent on the behavior.

What is negative reinforcement?

A consequence that increases a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., buckling a seatbelt to stop a beeping noise, or taking aspirin to stop a headache).

What is positive punishment?

A consequence that decreases a behavior by adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., spanking, scolding, receiving detention, or getting extra chores).

What is negative punishment?

A consequence that decreases a behavior by removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away a phone, losing privileges, response cost, or time-out).

How are primary, secondary, and generalized conditioned reinforcers defined?

Primary (unconditioned) reinforcers are naturally reinforcing with no learning needed (e.g., food, water, warmth). Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers depend on learned associations (e.g., money, grades, praise). Generalized conditioned reinforcers are linked to many primary reinforcers, making them flexible and powerful (e.g., money, tokens).

What is the distinction between escape learning and avoidance learning?

In escape learning, a behavior ends an unpleasant stimulus that is already happening (e.g., taking aspirin to stop an active headache). In avoidance learning, a behavior prevents an unpleasant stimulus from occurring in the first place (e.g., buckling a seatbelt to prevent beeping). Both are operant forms of negative reinforcement.

What is shaping in operant conditioning?

Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior, used when the desired behavior does not occur naturally.

What is chaining in operant conditioning?

Breaking a complex behavior into individual sequential steps and reinforcing the completion of each link in order (e.g., teaching handwashing or shoe-tying step-by-step).

What is a discriminative stimulus ($S_d$)?

A cue or signal indicating that a response will be reinforced in a specific context (e.g., an "OPEN" sign indicating that buying food will yield food).

What is the difference between stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization in operant conditioning?

Stimulus discrimination is responding differently to different stimuli (e.g., a dog sits for its owner's specific hand signal, not random gestures). Stimulus generalization is responding similarly to similar stimuli (e.g., fearing all large dogs after being bitten by one).

What is extinction in operant conditioning and what is an extinction burst?

Extinction is the decrease in behavior when reinforcement is withheld. An extinction burst is a temporary spike or increase in the frequency/intensity of the behavior when extinction first begins.

What are spontaneous recovery and renewal in operant conditioning?

Spontaneous recovery is the return of an extinguished behavior after a rest period. Renewal is the return of an extinguished behavior when the organism is placed in a different context.

How do continuous and partial (intermittent) reinforcement compare?

Continuous reinforcement reinforces every response, leading to fast acquisition but fast extinction. Partial reinforcement reinforces some responses, leading to slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction (partial reinforcement extinction effect).

What is a Fixed Ratio (FR) schedule of reinforcement?

Reinforcement is delivered after a set number of responses, resulting in a high response rate with a post-reinforcement pause (e.g., "Buy $10$ coffees, get $1$ free").

What is a Variable Ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement?

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses, producing the highest, steady response rate and strong resistance to extinction (e.g., slot machines, gambling).

What is a Fixed Interval (FI) schedule of reinforcement?

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a set time, producing a "scalloped" response pattern (slow initial responding that speeds up as time approaches; e.g., checking the oven as a timer nears).

What is a Variable Interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement?

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after varying or unpredictable time intervals, producing steady, moderate responding (e.g., checking social media, texts, or emails).

What is a token economy and how does it function?

A behavior modification system in which individuals earn tokens (generalized conditioned reinforcers) for target behaviors, which are later exchanged for backup reinforcers or privileges.

What are the key steps involved in systematic behavior modification?

1. Define target behavior (observable + measurable). 2. Measure baseline. 3. Choose strategy (reinforcement/punishment). 4. Pick reinforcer/punisher. 5. Shape if complex. 6. Set schedule (FR/VR/FI/VI) and monitor data. 7. Fade prompts. 8. Plan for generalization and maintenance.

What mnemonics help recall key concepts in operant conditioning?

"R = Rise, P = Plunge" (reinforcement increases, punishment decreases); "Positive = Plus (add), Negative = Minus (remove)"; "VR = Vegas Ratio" (gambling equals variable ratio); "FI = 'Finals' cause scallops" (fixed interval produces scalloped curve); "Ratio = Responses, Interval = Time"; "Sd = Signal" (cues availability of reinforcement); and "Extinction burst = last-ditch effort".