Sociology Chapter 2

what do sociologists do

Common Sense vs. Fake News

• CS: knowledge from lived experiences 

• FN: misinformation presented as authentic 

(sociologists dont accept CS → examine/test info)

Theory

potential explanation of fact/social phenomenon (gen explanation)

Functionalism

=society as set of interconnected parts working together to preserve stability/efficiency of social life (macro)

CONSENSUS

• how parts of society fit together + contribute to survival

• social institutions fill societal needs

• social reproduction: society reproduces itself from 1 gen to next

Problems with Functionalism

bad at

• dealing w change → sees society as functional/stable

• providing explanations for why change happens/interpreting bad things in society as having pos funcs

• ignores neg aspects of social order

Emile Durkheim

=origins of functionalism (industrial rev)

• society like organism (changes→ find equilibrium again) → inter-related parts

• changes in social solidarity (same cultures/practices→ capitalism causes more diversity/less solidarity)

→ social facts: patterned ways of acting/thinking, exists outside individuals

• industrialization/modernization → decay of earlier moral order (unwritten social norms to maintain societal order)

• risks anomie (instability from breakdown of standards/values) 

Talcott Parsons

=functionalism

• societal structures exist because they perform important funcs

• ignores social inequality

Robert Merton

= functionalist (student of parsons)

• manifest functions: intended/easily recognized func of institutions/social phenomenons

• latent manifestations: unintended/less visible functions 

• dysfunction: element/process of society leading to ↓ stability

Conflict Theory

= conflict b/w competing groups over scarce resources (macro)

• functionalists ignored importance of conflict/change

• society around inequalities producing conflict b/w social groups  

Karl Marx

= class conflict theory (conflict based on relationship to means of production)

• capitalism (sell labour for wage→ purchase things w wage) as mode of production (produce things needed to survive)

→ top: bourgeoisie (capitalists): own means of production

→ bottom: proletariat (worker): produce for B

(conflict b/w inevitable)

Karl Marx: Class vs. False Consciousness

• C: oppressed unite + recognize dominance/oppression & act to change

• F: mistakenly identify w capitalists (dont recognize exploitation, work hard enough= become)

Interactionism

=create meaning through interactions (micro)

• shared meaning & interpretations make interaction possible

• sm scale interactions reinforce larger social norms/values

Erving Goffman

=interactionism

dramaturgy

social interaction involves

• backstage interactions: free from expectations/norms that dictate frontstage 

• frontstage: behaviour reflects internalized norms/expectations 

Erving Goffman: Stigma

• stigma: mark of disgrace/dishonour

→ discredited: known/visible

→ discreditable: unknown/invisible

Harold Garfinkel

=ethnomethodology: methods of people

• studies day to day rules taken for granted

• breaching experiments → break sm rules (shows how hard we defend them)

George Mead

=founder of interactionism

• interaction helps develop sense of self (observe how others treat/react to us)

• significant others: people who play major role in shaping self

• self: I & me

I-Self vs. Me-Self

• I: unsocialized self→ spontaneous, creative, impulsive 

• M: socialized self (reflects societal values/attitudes)

(me monitors I)

W.E.B. Du Bois

=key founder of american sociology (civil rights leader/social scientist)

• structural racism significant social construct (social class & racial discrimination)

• race conflict theory: conflict b/w diff racial/ethnic groups

• double-consciousness: feel identity divided into parts → impossible to have single unified identity (through white racist society)

Mary Wollstonecraft

• one of first feminists

• present-day marriage = legal prostitution

Feminist Theory

= understand/explain/change ways construction of gender creates inequality 

• 1st wave: some W vote (1880-1920)

• 2nd: demand wider social equity, W together for consciousness raising (1960s)

• 3rd: intersectionality (1980s-now)

Kimberle Chrenshaw

• Intersectionality: womens experience of oppression unique to own circumstances

• ex. intersection of sexism & racism

Dorothy Smith

standpoint theory: feminist position arguing knowledge stems from social position/marginalized status

• unique perspective from being part of a marginalized group

bell hooks

• 3rd wave anti racist feminist (focused on black W)

• race & gender determine W’s destiny

• black women as distinct from black men & white women

Research Method

systematic plan for gathering/analyzing observations about world

The Scientific Method

1. research idea

2. literature review

3. hypothesis formulation

4. research design (how to collect data)

5. data collection (4 main: experiment, survey, participant observation, existing resources)

6. data analysis

7. dissemination of results (share knowledge to public + peer review)

Research Idea & Literature Review

1. decide what you want to know & define problem 

2. review existing literature/research (narrow down study area) 

Hypothesis Formulation

• hypothesis: statement about possible relationship b/w variables

• variable: trait/quality that can take on different values

→ depen: variable being tested/measured

→ indepen: variable changed/controlled to test effects of depen

Experiment

studies possible cause/effect relationships w controlled/carefully regulated lab conditions

• not often used by sociologists

• quasi-experimental: not truly an experiment → no random assignment

Unobtrusive Measures

data collection where participant unaware theyre being studied

Content Analysis

study documents/communications

• unobtrusive→ uses material + systematically looks for patterns

Participant vs. Non-Participant Observation

participate in social group being studied (1st hand info)

• non: observe wo participating

Hawthorne Effect

people behave differently when they know being observed

Surveys

interview w series of questions

• close ended: multiple choice

• open ended: respondent answers in own words

Population vs. Sample

• P: people sharing specific characteristic of interest to researcher 

• S: sm group of people from population of interest 

Convince vs. Snowball vs. Quota Sampling

not accurate → cheaper, simpler, not as representative

• C: participants easily available to researcher (must clarify how you got participants)

• S: participants refer others

• Q: chose important traits of pop + choose people w these traits from accessible pop

Questionnaires

• set of questions w predetermined answers

• → response bias: answer untruthfully/misleading

Structured vs. Unstructured Interviews

• S: asked standard set of questions in same form/order 

• U: respondents asked flexible/open ended questions 

Secondary Data Collection

examine/interpret data gathered by another researcher/environment

• still doing original research

Data Analysis

ensure valid & reliable

• v: accurately measuring a concept 

• r: measure produces consistent results 

Research Ethics

Canadian Sociology & Anthropology Association (CSAA)

• whats considered right/wrong in social research

• openly share research & participants not harmed by study 

Critical Thinking

1. active, objective gathering of info from observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication 

2. actively analyzing, applying evaluating info 

3. info/analysis as guide to belief/action

Ibn Khalduhn

• arab

• studied problems in social science in 1300s (changes in social systems)

Paradigm

concepts/theories framing perspective on certain topic

• theoretical paradigms: fundamental assumptions sociologists have about social world → help guides thinking/research

Correlation

potential relationship b/w variables → 2 variables move together

• pos: vary in same direction

• neg: vary in opp direction

• spurious: 3rd factor influences both variables

Informed Consent

subjects know youre observing & risks of being in study

Inductive vs Deductive Logical Thought

• D: create theory then collect data (top down)

• I: collect data then develop theory (bottom up)

Sociology as Social Science

• create theories to understand/predict issues in social world

• test theories by collecting data

• avoid biases

• try to be value free (goal → unlikely so transparent)

• aware of hidden assumptions in arguments

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

• Quan: numerical data/statistics (more macro info w bigger samples)

• Qual: rich descriptions, peoples stories in more detail (more micro info, w smaller samples)

mixed methods: combo of both (ideal)

Research Design

• cross sectional: study done at one time (once)

• longitudinal: study done over time (revisit same group/same questions multiple times)

Simple vs. Stratified Random Sample

=all members of population have equal chance of selection

• simple: draw names/cases generated randomly by computer program

• stratified: represent traits of population (ex. more F than M → sample should reflect)