Human Development - Chapter 8

Middle childhood is the time for what 2 advances?

• More independence.

• More social awareness.

What makes children more independent during middle childhood?

Steady growth, brain maturation, and intellectual advances.

Describe Erickson’s fourth stage of psychosocial crises, Industry vs. Inferiority.

Tension between productivity and incompetence; kids attempt to master culturally valued skills/develop sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior.

• Ex. Helping family; praised → feel capable, mocked → believe they are incompetent and inferior.

What is self-concept?

The development of specific and logical ideas about personal intelligence, personality abilities, gender, and ethnic heritage.

What influences the development of self-concept?

Cognitive advances, biology, past experiences, and current context.

What is social comparison?

The habit of measuring your abilities, achievements, and social status to other people, especially peers.

What helps school-aged children to value themselves and abandon their fantasy self from younger years?

Social comparison.

What nurtures the self-concept?

Acceptance and appreciation from peers → increased self-esteem.

T or F: Children who affirm pride in gender and ethnicity will develop a healthy self-esteem.

True.

Why do some children have less-self esteem?

Some face social prejudice regarding appearance, ethnicity, speech, or income.

What is more effective for self-confidence? Pride or preparing children for prejudice?

Pride.

What aids academic and social competence?

Realistic self-perception and high self esteem.

What is narcissism? What does it cause?

• Grandiosity that downplays appreciation of everyone else

  • → Reduction in efforts to try new tasks, meet strangers, take on challenges; devalues other people.

What is transitory object attachment?

• Attachment to material possessions as symbols of achievement.

  • Influenced by social media.

  • Luxury clothes, trends, etc.

What is resilience?

Capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress.

What are some important components of resilience?

• Dynamic, not stable.

• Positive adaptation to stress.

• Adversity must be significant, a threat to development.

T or F: Separation of children from their families for a long-time has lifelong effects.

True, sever emotional, behavioral, and physical implications.

What is harder on a child, ongoing minor daily stress or single major trauma?

Ongoing minor daily stress.

What helps increase resilience in children?

Siblings and caregivers who provide affection, routines, and hope.

What is family structure?

• Legal & genetic relationships among family members.

• Structures: nuclear, extended, stepfamily, single-parent, many others.

What is the most common family structure for children in middle childhood?

Two-parent households.

What is family function?

The way a family works to meet member needs.

What 5 family functions allow children to thrive?

• Physical necessities.

• Learning.

• Pride.

• Peer relationships.

• Harmony and stability.

What are the effects of low income at every stage of child development?

Hunger, cold, and inadequate sleep; SES also affects learning, pride, and peer relationships.

What does the family stress model express?

That any risk factor (e.g. poverty, divorce, single parenthood, unemployment, etc.) damages a family only if it increases stress of the parents → less patient and responsive.

T or F: Harmony and stability are crucial in middle childhood.

True.

Why does moving schools constantly harm children in middle childhood?

It threatens stability and harmony, learning and friendships change consistently.

• Chaos → emotional problems, aggression, and depression.

Correlation between children living with both biological parents and academic performance?

Better academic performance, fewer emotional problems, benefit from shared caregiving.

T or F: Parents sexual orientation plays a major role in a child’s psychological adjustment.

False; income and stability are more significant.

Why can cohabiting and stepfamilies create challenges in children’s lives?

Potential challenges w/ lower income, less stability, and increased conflict.

T or F: No single factor/structure ensures a functioning family.

True.

T or F: Concrete operational thought make children painfully aware of their peers’ opinions, judgments, and exclusions.

True.

What is the culture of children?

The games, sayings, and styles that each group of children has.

• Customs, rules, rituals.

• Appearance.

• Independence from adults.

How are boys' and girls' peer cultures changing in the U.S.?

Traditional distinctions are becoming less rigid → change.

Why can children culture and adult culture clash?

Child culture puts an emphasis on appearance and independence from adults; conflict with adult expectations.

What do school-age children value more? Friendship or peer acceptance?

Friendship.

Why are intimate friendships beneficial for children?

Advances in social cognition and effortful control.

Do friends promote/dampen academic achievement?

Yes.

Who do 6 year olds particularly befriend?

People of the same gender and age that play with them.

What happens to how children make friends once they turn 10?

They become selective; boys expect friends to be companions, girls seek loyalty, everyone wants meaningful connections and strives to attain them.

What children tend to be popular?

Those who are friendly, cooperative, and prosocial (say something complementary/help with homework).

T or F: Unpopular children are merely ignored, not rejected.

True, shy → lonely but not victimized.

Aggressive children are likely to be rejected because…

They have confrontational behavior; may become bully victims.

Why are withdrawn children rejected by their peers?

Because of their timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior.

What 3 difficulties do aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected children have?

1. Misinterpret social situations (when they are not welcome).

2. Lack emotional regulation (crying/yelling when no one is).

3. Experience mistreatment at home (neglect or abuse).

What is bullying?

Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm on a weaker person.

What are some types of bullying?

• Physical.

• Verbal.

• Relational.

• Cyberbullying.

Explain each type of bullying.

• Physical (hitting, kicking, etc.).

• Verbal (teasing, taunting, name-calling).

• Relational (destroying peer acceptance and friendship).

• Cyber (using electronic means to harm another).

What portion of the world’s children are bullied?

1/3.

What skills do bullies in middle childhood gain?

• Ability to avoid adult awareness,

• Learn to pick on defenseless and use nonphysical methods to avoid punishment.

• Have friends who admire them.

What are some causes of bullying?

• Toxic masculinity (LGBTQ+).

• Use of force by parents and siblings on younger children.

• Bullied by peers at school / siblings at home.

Empathy can be taught in middle childhood, “how do you think they feel?” What does this do?

Reduces bullying and increases defense.

What are some consequences of bullying?

• Victimization and suicidal thoughts.

• Consequences later on (4x more likely if at school and sibling bullying).

How can bullying be stopped?

• Spreading awareness.

  • Anti-bullying campaigns.

• Zero tolerance for fighting.

• Putting bullies in therapy groups.

What are some moral skills children have?

• Making moral judgments.

• Ideas of fairness, kindness, and equality.

• Differentiating universal principles from conventional norms.

What influences moral development in middle childhood?

• Peer culture.

• Personal experience.

• Empathy.

What are three moral imperatives of child culture in middle childhood?

• Defend your friends.

• Don’t tell adults about children’s misbehavior.

• Conform to peer standards of dress, talk, and behavior.

Clashes with adult morality.

What is empathy?

An understanding of basic humanity of other people.

What is the best way to increase empathy?

Developing a close friendship.

How does hidden curriculum and adult values affect how a child can think or act morally?

Hidden curriculum such as less diversity → belief that minorities matter less / are outside of norms.

• Diversity in schools & neighborhoods helps!

How can an adult help a child learn empathy?

Explain their feelings then imagine how someone else might feel.

T or F: Peer interactions are an effective way to reinforce moral values and behaviors.

True.

T or F: Scaffolding moral development by presenting kids w/ moral dilemmas and guiding discussion can teach them about morality.

True.

What did Lawrence Kohlberg describe?

Three levels of moral reasoning, that run parallel to Piaget’s stages of cognition.

List and describe each of Kohlberg’s levels of moral reasoning.

1. Preconventional moral reasoning.

   1. Rewards and punishments.

2. Conventional moral reasoning.

   1. Social rules.

3. Postconventional moral reasoning.

   1. Moral principles.

   2. Breaking laws for the greater good.

One more detail: Children who are punished; broken window example → seek punishment rather than fixing the issue. Children who are talked through the issue → seek justice and attempt to fix the issue rather than seek punishment.

Retributive justice: seeking punishment.

Restorative justice: solution focused.