Research Methods and Academic Thinking

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering fundamental and applied research, research ethics, cognitive biases, logical fallacies, data classification, and source evaluation.

Informal approach

An approach that draws conclusions based on daily life observations and personal opinion rather than standard research methods; it is quick and flexible but vulnerable to bias and subjectivity.

Systematic approach

Observations based on adequate research that follow standard research methods according to a fixed, methodological plan; it is an intentional set of organized activities designed to reach unbiased and reliable conclusions.

Research

A systematic, organized investigation into a topic to establish facts and draw conclusions, based on the cyclical process of the scientific method.

Fundamental research

Pure or basic research aimed at exploring topics, understanding basic principles, and developing or building upon new theories and hypotheses to improve knowledge for its own sake.

Applied research

Research conducted to acquire new knowledge primarily aimed at resolving a specific, practical problem, often testing theories in real-world contexts.

Research methods

Specific procedures, strategies, and techniques used to systematically collect and analyse data in both fundamental and applied research.

Research problem

A statement about an area of concern, a knowledge gap, or a situation needing improvement that establishes the need for an investigation and sets boundaries for the topic.

Research objective

A practical, action-oriented statement summarizing what a project aims to achieve, serving as a guiding direction that often aligns with the SMART model.

Research question

The single central or main question that an entire research project is designed to answer and around which all decisions are oriented.

Research sub-questions

Secondary questions that break down the central research question into smaller, manageable parts to explore different aspects and structure the investigation.

Research ethics

Ethical principles guiding research conduct, structured in the Netherlands Code of Conduct for Research Integrity around honesty, scrupulousness, transparency, independence, and responsibility.

Honesty

A core research ethics principle requiring truthfulness in research, the use of reliable data, and avoiding plagiarism by properly crediting all sources.

Scrupulousness

A core research ethics principle emphasizing the use of appropriate scientific methods and thorough, careful research design.

Transparency

A core research ethics principle requiring researchers to clearly disclose data sources, methods, results, potential conflicts of interest, and external financial support to ensure verifiability.

Independence

A core research ethics principle ensuring that research design and processes are guided strictly by scientific considerations rather than outside commercial, political, or funder pressure.

Responsibility

A core research ethics principle requiring research to maintain societal relevance while safeguarding participants from physical or mental harm through informed consent and protection.

Data

A collection of raw facts—either quantitative or qualitative—that lack context on their own and require processing and organization to gain meaning.

Information

The meaningful result of processing, organizing, and interpreting raw data through analysis within a specific context.

Fact (empirical evidence)

Information that is demonstrably true, traceable to reliable evidence, and capable of being observed, measured, or duplicated via research methods.

Theory

A logically consistent explanation of a specific behavior or set of events that is rooted in known principles, validated by empirical evidence, and capable of making predictions.

Framework

A structured model or tool (such as a SWOT analysis or Risk Matrix) providing a step-by-step approach to investigate a research problem or analyse information.

Opinion

A personal view or belief about a topic that is not necessarily based on or supported by empirical evidence.

Cognitive bias

A pattern of systematic, unconscious errors in thinking that causes misperceptions of reality due to the way the human brain processes information.

Cognitive dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced when an individual's actions, beliefs, or values fail to align.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information supporting pre-existing beliefs while ignoring or rejecting contradictory evidence.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut in which the commonness, importance, or likelihood of an event is judged by how easily clear examples come to mind.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of survey and study respondents to provide socially acceptable answers or present positive behavior rather than their true, unfiltered views.

Dunning-Kruger effect

A cognitive bias in which individuals with low skill or limited knowledge in a specific domain greatly overestimate their own competence.

Logical fallacy

An error in reasoning related to how claims are made and arguments are constructed, occurring either unconsciously or intentionally to mislead or persuade.

Anecdotal fallacy

Using a personal experience, isolated story, or single example in place of a statistically backed argument to dismiss broader evidence.

Appeal to authority

Claiming that an argument must be true simply because an authority figure or celebrity endorses it, rather than presenting verifiable evidence.

Causal fallacy

An error in reasoning that assumes because two events occur together or are correlated, one must have caused the other.

Cherry picking

Highlighting only data or examples that support a specific claim while ignoring all contradictory evidence that weakens it.

Ambiguity (Equivocation)

An error in reasoning occurring when an argument uses a word, phrase, or sentence structure with two or more meanings, invalidating the conclusion.

Personal incredulity

Concluding that a claim is false simply because an individual finds it difficult to understand, imagine, or comprehend.

Burden of proof fallacy

Making a claim without offering supporting evidence and improperly forcing someone else to disprove it.

Slippery slope

Arguing that a small first step will inevitably trigger a chain of extreme negative events without providing proof for the connection.

Strawman fallacy

Changing, misrepresenting, or exaggerating an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack.

Ad hominem

Attacking the personal traits, motives, or character of the person presenting an argument rather than addressing the actual argument itself.

Qualitative research

Research focused on gathering non-numerical data regarding lived experiences, emotions, and behaviors to provide rich descriptions, often via interviews and literature reviews.

Quantitative research

Research focused on gathering numerical and statistical data that can be ranked, measured, or categorized through statistical analysis to identify patterns and relationships.

Skimming

A reading technique involving reading quickly for a general overview, focusing on headings and the first and last sentences of paragraphs.

Scanning

A reading technique focused on searching text to locate a specific fact, date, table, or keyword.

Detail reading

A reading technique involving reading a passage carefully word-for-word, paying close attention to grammar, punctuation, and linking words to grasp all details.

Critical reading

Analysing and evaluating a text's arguments and supporting evidence beyond simply locating and understanding facts.

Deductive thinking

A systematic, top-down approach moving from a general theory to test hypotheses against data and arrive at a specific conclusion, commonly linked with quantitative research.

Inductive thinking

A systematic, bottom-up approach moving from specific observations to identify patterns and generate broader hypotheses or theories, often used in exploratory research.

Mixed-methods research

A research method that combines both quantitative and qualitative methods to gain a deeper, more holistic understanding by uniting statistical data with contextual insights.

Multi-method research

A research approach using two or more methods from the same methodological family (either all qualitative or all quantitative) within a single study.

Triangulation

The practice of using multiple viewpoints, data sources, or methods to cross-verify findings and enhance research reliability.

Data triangulation

A specific type of triangulation that uses different sources of data to validate and confirm findings.

Methodological triangulation

A specific type of triangulation that employs different research methods to investigate the same problem.

Holism

The perspective that a system is more than the sum of its parts, requiring an analysis of the entire picture and the connections between elements.

Research project

A scientific effort to answer a research question within a limited timeframe, following a structured approach to achieve an observable result.

Preliminary research

The initial phase of a research project focused on uncovering basic facts (who, what, when, where), assessing available sources, and recognizing key controversies before designing a full study.

Background research

Extensive literature research conducted after establishing a solid research design to gain familiarity with existing knowledge before collecting and analysing new data.

6W/5W1H problem analysis framework

A structured framework used to analyse a problem comprehensively from six distinct perspectives: what, why, where, who, when, and which (or how).

Research proposal

A structured, formal document outlining what a researcher plans to investigate (design), why it is significant (relevance), and how it will be executed (methodology).

Case study

A detailed investigation of a particular problem, person, group, or event, gathering comprehensive details to tell the story and draw critical lessons.

Sources

Origin points of information—including articles, books, websites, videos, people, and raw data—that provide evidence for research ideas.

Primary sources

Raw data and first-hand evidence that has not been interpreted by someone else, including interview transcripts, documented observations, raw statistics, and equipment logs.

Secondary sources

Second-hand information and interpretations of primary sources, including textbooks, review articles, historical analyses, and biographies.

White literature

An umbrella term for traditionally published, peer-reviewed academic works, including scholarly journal articles and academic press books.

Academic articles

Rigorous formal papers written by experts, published in peer-reviewed journals to share new knowledge, typically structured with an abstract, introduction, methodology, results, and conclusion.

Peer-review

A formal quality-control process in scholarly publishing in which independent field experts critically evaluate a research paper before its publication.

Grey literature

Materials and research produced by organizations outside traditional academic publishing, such as government technical reports, corporate reports, theses, and conference proceedings, which do not undergo standard academic peer review.

Narrative citation

A citation method that directly incorporates the author's name into the sentence structure, followed immediately by the year of publication in parentheses.

Parenthetical citation

An in-text citation format in which the author's name and publication year are both placed inside parentheses at the end of a sentence or clause.