Psych 2a Vocab

perception

The process by which sensory information is organized and interpreted to create a meaningful understanding of the world.

primacy effect

The tendency for information presented at the beginning of a list to be better encoded and remembered.

recency effect

The tendency for information presented at the end of a list to be better encoded and remembered.

top down processing

Perception driven by internal prior expectations and knowledge, where existing schemas influence how sensory information is interpreted.

bottom up processing

Perception driven by external sensory information, where sensory data is processed and built up into perceptions.

schemas

Mental frameworks or organized patterns of knowledge about the world that influence how information is perceived and interpreted.

iconic memory

A type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual information.

echoic memory

A type of sensory memory that briefly holds auditory information

culture influence

the shared beliefs, values, norms, traditions, behaviors, and attitudes of a group or society that shape an individual's thoughts, emotions, and actions

gestalt psychology

A psychological approach that explains how humans organize sensory information into meaningful wholes through perceptual principles.

closure

A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete by filling in missing information.

figure ground

A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive objects as distinct figures that stand out from their background.

proximity

A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive objects that are close together as a unified group.

similarity

A Gestalt principle describing the tendency to perceive objects that share similar characteristics as a unified group.

cocktail party effect

A phenomenon where people can selectively attend to specific information, such as hearing their name, in a noisy or distracting environment.

inattentional blindness

failing to notice an unexpected stimulus in plain sight because your attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

The failure to perceive changes in the environment due to inattention or lack of focus on those changes.

binocular depth cues

Depth perception cues that require information from both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence.

retinal disparity

The difference between the images projected onto each retina, used as a binocular depth cue to perceive depth.

convergence

A binocular depth cue in which the brain merges the retinal images from both eyes to provide perception of depth.

monocular depth cues

Depth perception cues that can be perceived with one eye, including relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition.

relative clarity

A monocular depth cue in which objects that appear clearer or sharper are perceived as closer than blurry objects.

relative size

A monocular depth cue in which objects that appear larger are perceived as closer than objects that appear smaller.

texture gradient

A monocular depth cue in which texture becomes finer and less detailed as distance increases, creating the illusion of depth.

linear perspective

A monocular depth cue in which parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, creating the illusion of depth.

interposition

A monocular depth cue in which objects that overlap or block other objects are perceived as closer.

preceptual constancy

The tendency to perceive objects as maintaining consistent properties such as size, shape, and color despite changes in the visual image.

apparent movement

The visual perception of movement in objects that are not actually moving, such as in phi phenomenon or motion illusions.

prototypes

The ideal or most typical example of a given concept.

concepts

Mental categories that organize information and form the basis of thought.

schema framework

Mental frameworks or organized patterns of knowledge about the world that influence how information is perceived and interpreted.

assimilation

The cognitive process of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing the schemas themselves.

accommodation

The process by which the lens focuses visual stimuli onto the retina to create a clear image.

algorithms

Problem-solving strategies that attempt all possible solutions systematically until the correct one is found.

heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make judgments and solve problems quickly, though they can sometimes lead to errors.

representative heuristic

A mental shortcut that leads to errors in judgment when decisions are made based on prior expectations or stereotypes.

availability heuristic

A mental shortcut where judgments are based on recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind.

mental set

A cognitive bias where prior successful experiences influence how a person approaches new problems.

priming

The influence of prior exposure to information on subsequent judgments and decisions.

framing

The way information is presented or contextualized, which can influence decision-making.

gambler’s fallacy

the mistaken belief that past random events can change the probability of future independent events

sunk cost fallacy

a cognitive bias where you continue an endeavor, project, or relationship just because you have already invested time, money, or effort into it—even though quitting is the better and more logical choice

executive functions

Cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and critical thinking.

creativity

A way of thinking that involves generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent thinking.

divergent thinking

A type of creative thinking that generates multiple possible solutions or ideas from a single starting point.

convergent thinking

A type of thinking that focuses on finding a single correct solution to a problem.

functional fixedness

A cognitive limitation where individuals perceive objects as having only their traditional function, hindering creative problem-solving.

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the three main processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval

storage

the process of retaining and maintaining encoded information in the brain over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage and bringing it back into conscious awareness

explicit memory

A type of memory that can be easily described or explained to others, including episodic and semantic memory.

episodic memory

A type of explicit memory for specific events and experiences.

semantic memory

A type of explicit memory for learned knowledge and facts.

implicit memory

A type of memory that is challenging to describe or explain to others, including procedural memory.

procedural memory

A type of implicit memory for procedures, skills, and processes.

long term potentiation

A biological process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, underlying memory formation.

working memory model

A memory process that actively manipulates and maintains information for immediate use in cognitive tasks.

central executive system

A component of the working memory model that controls attention and coordinates information processing.

phonological loop

A component of the working memory model that processes verbal and acoustic information.

visuospatial sketchpad

A component of the working memory model that processes visual and spatial information.

short term memory

A memory process that temporarily holds a limited amount of information, typically lasting from a few seconds to about a minute.

long term memory

A memory process that stores information for extended periods, potentially for a lifetime, with relatively unlimited capacity.

multi store model of memory

A model of memory proposing three interacting systems—sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory—through which information must pass to be remembered.

sensory memory

The initial memory process that holds sensory information for a very brief duration, typically less than a second.

automatic processing processing

Effortless encoding of information into memory that occurs without conscious attention.

effortful processing

Conscious, deliberate encoding of information into memory that requires attention and effort.

encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

levels of processing model

A model proposing that memory is encoded at three levels from shallowest to deepest: structural, phonemic, and semantic.

shallow (structural) processing

The shallowest level of processing in the levels of processing model, focusing on the physical appearance of information.

deep (semantic) processing

The deepest level of processing in the levels of processing model, focusing on the meaning of information.

middle (phonemic) processing

The intermediate level of processing in the levels of processing model, focusing on the sound of information.

mnemonic devices

Techniques or strategies used to aid in encoding and retrieving information from memory.

method of loci

A mnemonic device in which information is mentally associated with specific physical locations to aid memory encoding and retrieval.

chunking

The process of grouping information into meaningful units or chunks to improve encoding and memory capacity.

categorizing

the mental process of sorting objects, ideas, or events into groups (concepts) based on shared features

serial position effect

The tendency for items at the beginning and end of a list to be more memorable than items in the middle during encoding.

spacing effect

the phenomenon in which information is better encoded and retained when learning is distributed over time rather than concentrated in a single session.

memory consolidation

The process by which encoded information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory.

massed practice

Learning or encoding information all at once in a single, concentrated session.

distributed practice

Learning or encoding information spread out over multiple sessions separated by time intervals.