Behaviorist Principles and Theories

Practice examination flashcards covering major behaviorist theories including Classical Conditioning (Pavlov), Operant Conditioning (Thorndike and Skinner), reinforcement schedules, and effective versus ineffective punishment.

What is the behaviorist assumption of equipotentiality?

The assumption that human beings and other animals learn in similar ways, leading behaviorists to apply principles derived from research with animals like rats and pigeons to human learning.

In behaviorism, what does the term "tabula rasa" (blank slate) mean for learning?

The argument that, aside from certain instincts or biological disabilities, organisms are not born with predispositions to behave in certain ways and that environmental experiences gradually "write" their behavior.

What is the difference between S-R and S-O-R theories?

S-R (stimulus-response) psychology focuses on observable stimuli and responses, while S-O-R (stimulus-organism-response) theories, or neobehaviorism, argue that internal factors within the organism ($O$), like motivation, are also important.

According to Ivan Pavlov's research, what is a "neutral stimulus" (NS)?

A stimulus to which an organism does not initially respond in any noticeable way, such as a bell before it was paired with meat powder.

What characterizes an "unconditioned response" (UCR)?

A response that occurs unconditionally, without the organism having to learn to do so, such as a dog salivating to meat powder.

How does a neutral stimulus become a "conditioned stimulus" (CS) in classical conditioning?

When a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus ($UCS$), it eventually elicits a learned response on its own, becoming the $CS$.

What is the phenomenon of "extinction" in classical conditioning?

The disappearance of a conditioned response ($CR$) due to repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus ($CS$) without the unconditioned stimulus ($UCS$).

Define "spontaneous recovery" as it relates to Pavlov's experiments.

A recurrence of a conditioned response ($CR$) when a period of extinction is followed by a rest period, though the reappearing response is typically weaker and extinguishes more quickly.

In the study of "Little Albert," what process caused him to fear objects like a rabbit or a white fur coat instead of just the white rat?

Generalization, which occurs when a learner responds to other stimuli in the same way they respond to a specific conditioned stimulus ($CS$) based on similarity.

What is "higher-order conditioning"?

A process where a neutral stimulus becomes a second conditioned stimulus ($CS_2$) by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus ($CS_1$) rather than the original unconditioned stimulus.

What were the results of Watson and Rayner's 1920 "Little Albert" study?

After pairing a white rat ($CS$) with a loud noise ($UCS$), Albert developed a phobia of the rat and generalized that fear to other white, fuzzy objects like a Santa Claus mask.

Describe the therapeutic strategy of "counterconditioning."

An existing conditioned stimulus-response ($CS-CR$) association is overpowered by a different, stronger, and incompatible association, such as pairing a feared rabbit with the pleasure of eating candy.

What was Edward Thorndike's original "Law of Effect"?

Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened, while responses followed by discomfort are weakened.

How did B.F. Skinner differentiate "reinforcer" from "reward"?

A reinforcer is defined objectively by its effect on behavior (increasing the frequency of the response it follows) rather than by the subjective descriptors of "pleasantness" or "desirability" used for reward.

What are the three key conditions for operant conditioning to occur effectively?

1. The reinforcer must follow the response. 2. The reinforcer should follow immediately. 3. The reinforcer must be contingent on the response.

Distinguish between "primary" and "secondary" reinforcers.

A primary reinforcer satisfies a built-in biological need (e.g., food, warmth), whereas a secondary reinforcer is a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., money, grades) that becomes reinforcing through association with another reinforcer.

What is the "Premack Principle" for activity reinforcers?

The idea that a high-frequency (preferred) response can increase the frequency of a normally low-frequency (less-preferred) response when the high-frequency activity is made contingent on the low-frequency task.

How does "negative reinforcement" differ from punishment?

Negative reinforcement increases the frequency of a response by removing an aversive stimulus, whereas punishment decreases the response frequency.

What is "shaping" (successive approximations)?

The process of gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations to a desired behavior until only the desired behavior itself is being reinforced.

Explain "chaining" as a method of acquiring complex behaviors.

The process of reinforcing an increasingly long sequence of responses, such as a child learning to put materials away, sit quietly, and then line up for lunch.

Why are "variable schedules" of reinforcement usually recommended for long-term behavior maintenance?

They lead to steadier response rates and greater resistance to extinction because the unpredictability of the next reinforcement keeps the learner performing the behavior.

What is a "fixed-interval (FI) schedule" and what responding pattern does it produce?

Reinforcement is contingent on the first response after a constant time interval has elapsed; it produces a "scallop" pattern where response rates increase as the end of the interval approaches (e.g., studying only for a Friday test).

Define "cueing" (or prompting) in a classroom setting.

The use of an additional discriminative stimulus to let students know how to behave to receive reinforcement, such as a teacher flashing the overhead lights to remind students to talk quietly.

What is "behavioral momentum"?

A phenomenon where learners are more likely to make desired responses if they are already making similar, successful ones, such as giving a student easy one-digit math problems before difficult three-digit ones.

Differentiate between "active avoidance learning" and "passive avoidance learning."

In active avoidance, the learner makes a deliberate response to avoid an aversive event; in passive avoidance, the learner avoids an aversive event by not behaving in a certain way.

What is the difference between Punishment I and Punishment II?

Punishment I involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus (e.g., a scolding), whereas Punishment II involves the withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus (e.g., loss of privileges or response cost).

Why is "restitution" considered a logical consequence?

Because the punishment fits the crime by requiring the misbehaving individual to return the environment to its state before the misbehavior, such as cleaning up a made mess.

According to the text, why is out-of-school suspension often ineffective?

It puts already struggling students at a greater disadvantage and can be negatively reinforcing if the student finds the school environment aversive and wishes to escape it.