psych unit1

heredity

Passing of traits from parents to offspring

nature

the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

nurture

external factors that influences the development & thoughts of an individual

Genetic predisposition

an inherited genetic pattern that makes one susceptible to a certain disease or behaviors

evolutionary perspective of psychology

how thoughts & behavior have changed over time to increase chance of survival

natural selection

organisms with advantageous traits that suit their environment are more likely to survive & reproduce

eugenics

study of factors that influence the hereditary qualities of the human race and ways to improve those qualities

twin studies

measures how similar & different identical & fraternal twins are to eachother

family studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait

adoption studies

assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord; the body’s main processing center (motor actions, interpretation of info)

peripheral nervous system

nerves outside the CNS; relays messages between the central nervous system & the rest of the body

Autonomic nervous system

part of PNS; governs processes that are involuntary and includes the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.

sympathetic nervous system

part of ANS; controls the body’s “fight or flight” response (increases heart rate, blood flow, slow digestion)

parasympathetic nervous system

part of ANS; controls the body’s “rest & digest” response (slows heart rate, increased digestion)

somatic nervous system

part of peripheral nervous system; controls voluntary movements & processes sensory info

neurons

neural cells that transmit information via electrical & chemical signals

Glial cells

cells that support, nourish, and protect neurons (related to thinking, learning, & brain health)

reflex arc

neural pathway enables a rapid & automatic action AKA reflex (by sensory, motor, & interneurons)

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that send messages from the brain & spinal cord to the muscles (involuntary & voluntary movement, contract or relax)

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that relay messages between sensory & motor neurons

neural transmission

the transfer of electrical & chemical signals between neurons for communication

action potential

a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

all-or-nothing principle

Once action potential reaches threshold, either fires or doesn't

neural threshold

the minimum level of stimulation required to get a neuron to fire

depolarization

when the inside of a neuron briefly becomes more positively charged, triggering action potential

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire again

resting potential

the stable, inactive state a neuron is in when not transmitting signals

reuptake

when a neuron retrieves the neurotransmitters they released from the synapse

multiple sclerosis

chronic autoimmune disease where the immune system damages the myelin sheath (occurs in the CNS, causes weakness, incoordination, tingling)

myasthenia gravis

chronic autoimmune disease where antibodies block or destroy the receptors for acetylcholine

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that help neurons communicate

excitatory neurotransmitters

chemicals that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing

inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemicals that decrease the likelihood of a neuron from firing

dopamine

neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, reward system, motivation, & movement

Serotonin

neurotransmitter involved in mood, appetite, sleep and arousal. undersupply linked to depression

Norepinephrine

neurotransmitter involved in arousal, attention, & stress; released during fight or flight

Glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory, learning, neuroplasticity

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; regulates sleep and wake cycles, relaxation, reduces anxiety

Endorphines

neurotransmitter that works as natural pain relievers & improve mood (exercise, pain, stress)

Substance P

neurotransmitter that sends pain signals for CNS; allows you to feel pain & amplifies it

Acetylcholine

neurotransmitter released by CNS & PNS; enables muscle action, learning, and memory

Hormones

chemical messengers that are secreted by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream; regulate physiological processes & behavior

Adrenaline

hormone & neurotransmitter involved w/ the body’s fight or flight response (rises & preps the body)

Leptin

hormone produced by fat cells that manages energy & appetite (inhibits hunger)

Ghrelin

hormone released by stomach & small intestine that increases appetite & hunger

Melatonin

hormone produced by the pineal gland that controls the sleep-wake cycle & circadian rhythms

Oxytocin

hormone & neurotransmitter involved in social bonding (trust, intimacy, breastfeeding)

Psychoactive Drugs

chemical substances that affect the brain & cause changes in perception & behavior

Agonist

substances that bind to receptors & act like a neurotransmitter or hormone; activates receptors to produce a response

Antagonists

substances that bind to receptors but don’t activate them, stopping a response

Reuptake inhibitors

substances that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters into the presynaptic neuron, so that a greater amount remains in the synapse

Stimulants

drugs that speed up the body’s systems & neural activity

Caffeine

a mild stimulant that blocks adenosine, affects CNS; greater alertness, reduces fatigue

Cocaine

stimulant that causes a rush of euphoria, followed by a crash

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions; includes alcohol, antidepressants, barbiturates

Alcohol

depressant that slows down CNS activity, impairing judgment, memory, & coordination

Hallucinogens

drugs that affect perception, mood, & consciousness; includes LSD & Ketamine

Marijuana

a drug that enhances sensory sensitivity, alters perception, & causes relaxation; occasionally acts as a hallucinogen

Opioids

drugs that slow neural activity & work on opioid receptors to relieve pain, cause sedation, & euphoria; includes morphine, codeine heroine

Heroin

highly addictive opioid derived from morphine that leads to euphoria, pain relief, & sedation

Tolerance

when the body adapts to a drug & needs a higher dose to experience its effects

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

withdrawal

physical & mental distress experienced when a person stops using a drug they are dependent on

Brain Stem

oldest & central part of the brain; responsible for basic life functions (breathing, heart rate, sleep/wake cycle), & joins the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing, connects brain to spinal cord

reticular activating system

Located in the upper brain stem; controls arousal, consciousness, & the sleep-wake cycle, filters sensory info

Reward Center

limbic system; neural structures that regulate & reinforce pleasurable experiences

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; processes sensory input, coordinates movement, balance, & fine tunes movement

Cerebral Cortex

outer layer of the brain that controls higher-level cognitive functions

Limbic System

system below cerebral cortex; includes hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, & hippocampus, & manages emotions, memory, & drives

Thalamus

limbic system; relays sensory & motor info to the cerebral cortex, directing signals to their corresponding brain area; also manages consciousness, attention, & memory

Hypothalamus

limbic system; regulates essential functions for homeostasis, & produces hormones to communicate w/ pituitary gland

Pituitary Gland

master gland; manages the body’s hormone production & secretion, vital for homeostasis

Hippocampus

limbic system; creates & stores memories

Amygdala

limbic system; regulates emotions, specifically fear & aggression (fight or flight response)

Corpus callosum

thick bundle of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres and allows them to communicate

Occipital lobes

located at the back of the brain; processes visual info

Primary visual cortex

lets us see shapes, colors, & motion

temporal lobes

at the sides of the brain; processes auditory info, understanding of language & memory

auditory cortex

receives & interprets sounds from our ears

parietal lobes

found at the top of the brain; processes sensory info, such as touch, temperature, pain, & spacial awareness

association areas

parts of the brain that process & integrate collected sensory info

somatosensory cortex

part of the parietal lobes that registers and processes sensations from different parts of the body (skin, muscles, joints)

frontal lobes

front of the brain & largest lobe; controls higher level cognitive functions such as speaking, voluntary movement, planning, & decision making

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for executive functioning (self-control, planning, reasoning)

motor cortex

part of frontal lobe that directs voluntary movements

split brain research

study of patients with severed corpus callosum; involves sending messages to only one side of the brain; demonstrates right and left brain specialization

hemispheric specialization

each side of the brain had distinct capabilities

Broca's area

left hemisphere in frontal lobe; involved in producing & processing language (grammar, muscle coordination for speech)

Wernicke's area

left hemisphere in temporal lobe; helps with language comprehension, both spoken & written

Broca’s Aphasia

language disorder that affects speech, caused by injury to Broca’s Area (wrong grammar, slow speech)

Wernicke’s Aphasia

language disorder that affects the understanding of language, caused by damage to Wernicke’s area (fluent speech, but nonsensical)

Contralateral hemispheric organization

the left & right sides of the brain control the opposite sides of the body

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change & adapt throughout life (injury, learning, environment changes)

EEG

neuroimaging technique used to observe the brain’s electrical activity by placing electrodes on the scalp; to diagnose & record neurological disorders

fMRI

neuroimaging technique used to observe brain activity through changes in oxygen levels & blood flow

Lesioning

removal or destruction of part of the brain to study brain functions

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment