World

Human origins and intelligence

Humans originated in East Africa and developed tool-making, using their environment to suit circumstances.

Role of fire for early humans

Provided warmth, light, and cooked meat to energize bigger brains.

Paleolithic vs. Neolithic Age

Paleolithic was nomadic hunter-gatherers; Neolithic introduced farming, domestication, and civilizations.

Characteristics of an empire

Large territory, multiple ethnic groups, centralized government, and persistence over generations.

Preconditions for empire building

Existing state government, high agricultural potential, favorable environment, and mutual antagonism among small states.

Rewards of an empire

Security, resources, larger population, trade safety, and cultural diversity.

1979 Soviet-Afghan War

Soviets invaded Afghanistan, leading to the rise of the Mujahideen and Cold War proxy conflicts.

Key features of the Roman Empire

Citizenship, religious tolerance, military tactics, and advanced engineering like roads and bridges.

Qin Dynasty reputation

A very short dynasty with a poor reputation, viewed as a negative model of rule.

Han Dynasty civil service exam

Created a meritocracy by testing to find the smartest people for government work.

Major Han Dynasty exports

Porcelain and silk.

Indian monsoon winds

Predictable seasonal winds that enabled extensive ocean trading between India, Arabia, and Africa.

Maurya vs. Gupta Empires

Maurya was large like Rome but short-lived; Gupta featured mathematical innovations like zero.

Animism and Shamanism

Animism believes nature holds spirits; shamanism involves shamans communicating with those spirits.

Indian caste system

Society divided into ranked birth classes (jatis) determining jobs, diet, traditions, and marriage.

Brahman and Moksha

Brahman is the world soul; reincarnation cycles seek moksha to escape.

Jainism core principle

Total pacifism known as ahimsa.

Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

Life is suffering, desire causes suffering, ending desire ends suffering, and the Eightfold Path achieves this.

Mahayana vs. Theravada Buddhism

Mahayana emphasizes Buddha's divinity and bodhisattvas; Theravada focuses on original teachings and practices.

Mediterranean polytheism

Many non-benevolent gods with specific focuses; a religion of action over belief.

Core belief of Abrahamic religions

Belief in one omniscient, omnipotent, and benevolent God active in history.

Christianity's major split

Divided into Western (Catholic, Latin, Rome) and Eastern (Orthodox, Greek, Constantinople) branches.

Muhammad's background

A merchant from Mecca who received revelations from an angel that formed the Quran.

The Quran

Islam's holy book consisting of 114 suras, viewed as the direct word of God.

Five Pillars of Islam

Shahada, prayer, charity, Ramadan fasting, and the Hajj pilgrimage.

Significance of the Hajj

Gives Mecca prominent status and drives trade and road maintenance across the Islamic world.

Umma

The united community of all Muslim believers.

Caliph

A civil, military, and religious leader of the Islamic world.

Sunni vs. Shia split

Sunni believe caliphs should be chosen by the Umma; Shia believe leadership must follow Muhammad's bloodline.