Chapter 3 Prgram Management tools

Technology Readiness Assessment (TRA)

A systematic, metrics-based process assessing the maturity of, and technical risk associated with, critical technologies in acquisition programs.

Critical Technology

Technology posing major technical risk during development, especially during the Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) phase

Breadboard

Integrated components configured for laboratory use to demonstrate concept feasibility and technical principles. Resembles final system in function only.

Model

A functional form of a system, generally reduced in scale, near or at operational specifications, sufficiently hardened to demonstrate technical and operational capabilities

Prototype

A physical or virtual model used to evaluate technical/manufacturing feasibility or military utility

Relevant Environment

A testing environment simulating the most important and most stressing aspects of the operational environment

Operational Environment

An environment addressing all operational requirements and specifications (including packaging, platform, and environmental stress)

Low Fidelity

Representative model providing only first-order information (used for trend analysis)

High Fidelity

Addresses form, fit, and function; validates system specifications in an integrated laboratory setting

TRL 1 (basic principles observed and reported)

Scientific research begins transitioning into applied R&D (paper studies)

TRL 2 (technology concept/application formulated)

Invention begins; practical applications conceived. Speculative; supported by analytic studies

TRL 3 (analytical & experimental proof of concept)

Active R&D initiated. Analytical studies and laboratory experiments validate separate unintegrated elements

TRL 4 (component/breadboard validation in LABORATORY)

Basic components integrated to confirm they work together (LOW FIDELITY), ad hoc hardware)

TRL 5 (component/breadboard validation in RELEVANT ENVIRONMENT)

Significant fidelity increase; tested with realistic supporting elements in simulated environment

TRL 6 (system/subsystem model or prototype in RELEVANT ENVIRONMENT)

Major milestone step: Representative model/prototype testing in relevant/simulated operational environment (REQUIRED for MILESTONE B)

TRL 7 (system prototype demonstration in OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT)

Prototype near or at planned operational system demonstrated in operational environment (testbed aircraft, vehicle, space)

TRL 8 (actual system completed and qualified through test & demonstration)

True development complete; developmental test and evaluation (DT&E) confirms system meets design specifications

TRL 9 (actual system proven through successful mission operations)

Operational use under ,is soon conditions (OT&E reports, actual combat/field deployments)

Integrated Master Plan (IMP)

Event-based - Not calendar-based

Structured around major program events, accomplishments, and narrative completion criteria

Integrated Master Schedule (IMS)

Time-based - Calendar-driven - Networked schedule

Expands directly from IMP events and criteria down to discrete wire packages, planning packages, task durations, and dependencies

A “living document” continuously updated throughout project execution

1. Identify Tasks

Decompose WBS into discrete tasks with defined starts, finishes, costs, and deliverables

2. Sequence Tasks

Establish logical relationships using network diagrams

Mandatory Dependencies (Hard Logic)

Inherent physical/technical requirements (foundation before framing)

Discretionary Dependencies (Soft Logic)

Preferred order based on best practices or organizational policies

External Dependencies

Restrictions outside program control (environmental approval, test range availability)

3. Determine Resource Requirements

Calculate necessary labor categories, equipment, and facilities

4. Estimate Task Durations

Establish work days required based in effort and available personnel

5. Construct Schedules

Perform forward and backward passes to establish critical path, float, and baseline dates

Finish-to-Start (FS)

Successor cannot start until predecessor finishes (STANDARD accounts for 90% of links)

Start-to-Start (SS)

Successor cannot start until predecessor starts

Finish-to-Finish (FF)

Successor cannot finish until predecessor finishes

Start-to-Finish (SF)

Successor cannot finish until predecessor starts (extremely rare; avoid)

Lag

A planned delay inserted between tasks

Lead (Negative Lag)

Accelerating a successor before predecessor completion. AVOID entirely (target=0) because it distorts float and masks critical path risks

Horizontal Traceability

Demonstrates that detailed tasks follow a logical sequence across time and account for predecessor/successor handoffs

Vertical Traceability

Demonstrates data consistency across all hierarchy levels

Integrated Baseline Review (IBR)

A joint government-contractor review assessing baseline realism, scope coverage, logic, and risk. Ni later than 180 days after contract award or major contract modifications.

1. Parkinson’s Law

Work expands to fill the time allotted. Workers consume entire durations regardless of capability.

2. Student Syndrome

Procrastination; delaying full effort until the deadline looms.

3. Multitasking

Fragmented attention causes inefficiencies across multiple active tasks.

4. Padded Estimates

Safely buffers get wasted because workers slacken pace knowing a cushion exists.

5. Successor Task Bottlenecks

Downstream teams are unready or unable to accept early deliverables.

Float Formula

Late Finish (LF) - Early Finish (EF)

Total Float

Time an activity can slip without delaying the overall project completion date.

Free Float

Time an activity can slip without delaying any successor task.

Critical Path

The sequence of tasks with the longest total duration and least float (determining minimum project time)

Analogy

Compares new system directly to a single historical system using subjective adjustments (Very early, Fast, Inexpensive, High cost risk)

Parametric

Uses regression analysis on historical database to create Cost Estimating Relationships (CERs) (Early stages, fast, dependent on database accuracy)

Engineering (Bottom-Up)

Detailed cost buildup at lowest WBS level using drawings, bills of materials, and labor standards (Late development EMD, Highly Detailed, Very Costly and Time-Consuming)

Actual Costs (Extrapolation)

Extrapolates historical costs from prototype, test articles, or early production lots using learning curves. (Late Phases, Highest accuracy)

Direct Costs

Labor & Materials - Traced directly to the product

Indirect Costs

Overhead, G&A

Raw Materials

Sheet metal, plastics, & bar stock

Purchased Parts

Standard vendor parts (switches, fasteners, batteries)

Commercial Items

Off-the-shelf items sold commercially (Chips, Boards)

Interdivisional Transfers

Items transferred across company divisions; priced at cost without profit

Subcontracted Items

Major subassemblies built to prime specifications (engines, landing gear)

Loading Factors

Adders for consumables, excess usage (scrap/spoilage), obsolescence, and inventory discrepancies

Decrement Factor

Downward adjustment applied to subcontractor quotes to reflect historical savings won during negotiations

Recurring Costs

Repetitive costs that vary with quantity produced (fabrication, assembly, operational configuration testing, sustaining engineering)

No recurring Costs

One-time or non repetitive development cost that generally do not vary with quantity (R&D, tooling design, test fixtures, initial qualification, software architecture)

Divergent Phase (Open)

Brainstorm broadly; withhold evaluation; encourage wild ideas; emphasize quantity over quality; allow ideas to grow

Convergent Phase (Focus)

Use logic & methodical screening; define explicit evaluation criteria; avoid rushing to premature closure; select & strengthen ideas

Structured

Round-robin turn-taking. Guarantees equal participation, but lacks spontaneity

Unstructured

free-flow discussion. High synergy, but risks dominance by aggressive personalities

Silent (Brainwritting)

Ideas written on cars/sticky notes without speaking. Eliminates interpersonal pressure & debating generation

Cause & Effect Diagram (Ishikawa/Fishbone)

Identifies root causes of a specific failure or defect (People, Product, Process, Equipment)

Force field Analysis

Weighs forces pushing toward a goal (Driving Forces +) against forces blocking it (Restraining Forces - )

Histogram

Displays frequency distribution of continuous variables

Scatter Diagram

Identifies mathematical/statistical correlation between two variables(Positive slope/direct, Negative slope/inverse, or circular dispersion/no correlation

The Prioritization Matrix

Compares alternatives using weighted scores across criteria (Cost, Schedule, Performance)

Affordability Constraints

The highest scoring option may not be selected if it breaches a hard constraint (budget ceiling/weight limit)

Trade-off Space

If an alternative delivers superior operational value but exceeds an individual component budget, PMs must explore trade-offs across other system areas before finalizing

Affinity Diagram

Organizes high volume of brainstormed items into natural thematic clusters (group ideas silently without discussion

Pairwise Ranking

Prioritizes a small list of items through direct head-to-head comparisons

Pareto Chart

Isolates the “vital few” root causes from the “trivial many” (80/20 Rule) , vertical bars ordered in descending order

Oval Symbol

Terminator (start/end trigger)

Rectangle

Process activity/step

Diamond

Decision Point (branching Yes/No)

Circle

Connector/Jump to another page

Deployment Flowchart (swimlane)

Distributes steps into horizontal or vertical lanes representing departments or roles. Pinpoints handoffs, gaps, and redundant work

Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

Eliminates peer pressure by having individuals rank ideas independently before tallying

Weighted Multi-Voting

Participants allocate a fixed budget of points across ideas. A voting ceiling prevents individual participants from distorting results

Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM/RACI)

Maps specific tasks to individuals or roles using responsibility designations (Primary, Second, Review, Input)