psychology exam 3 study note

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something because you enjoy the activity itself.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something to receive a reward or avoid punishment.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT

Psychologists: Edward Deci and Richard Ryan.

Self-determination theory explains that people have three basic psychological needs that support high-quality motivation.

Autonomy（自主性）

The need to feel that you have control over your own choices.

Example: Choosing your own topic for a research paper.

2. Competence（胜任感）

The need to feel capable, effective, and able to master challenges.

Example: Successfully solving a difficult math problem.

3. Relatedness（归属感）

The need to feel connected to and cared for by other people.

Example: Studying with friends who support you.

Overjustification Effect

When expected external rewards reduce someone's intrinsic motivation for an activity they already enjoy.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Psychologist: Clark Hull.

Definition: People are motivated to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs.

Limitation of drive-reduction theory

It does not explain why people seek excitement, curiosity, or stimulation when their biological needs are already satisfied.

Incentive Theory

External stimuli motivate people to perform certain behaviors.

Examples:

• Studying to earn a high grade.

• Working harder to receive a bonus.

• Following parking rules to avoid a ticket.

Arousal Theory

Definition: People are motivated to seek an optimal level of psychological and physiological arousal.

Arousal refers to a person's level of alertness, excitement, or activation.

Examples:

• Someone who is bored may seek an exciting activity.

• Someone who is overstimulated may seek a quiet environment.

• People may explore new places because they enjoy stimulation.

Unlike drive-reduction theory, arousal theory explains why people sometimes seek more stimulation, not less.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance often improves as arousal increases, but too much arousal can decrease performance.

• Difficult tasks → Lower optimal arousal.

• Easy tasks → Higher optimal arousal.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Psychologist: Abraham Maslow.

Maslow proposed that human motivation involves different levels of needs, ranging from basic survival to personal fulfillment.

Physiological Needs（生理需求）Safety Needs（安全需求）Love and Belonging（爱与归属）Esteem Needs（尊重需求）Self-Actualization（自我实现）

Psychology of Hunger

Hunger is influenced by both biological and environmental factors.

Food appearance and smell

You see a delicious cake after dinner and want to eat it, even though you're already full.

Social influences

You may eat more when having dinner with friends because you're enjoying the conversation.

Food variety

Having many different food choices can encourage you to eat more.

Nudging

food that is in front of you

The Need to Belong

Humans have a fundamental psychological need to form and maintain social connections.

people can change their behavior to fit in the group

Ostracism

Deliberately excluding someone from a group or social interaction.

Goal-Setting Theory

Edwin Locke and Gary Latham.

Definition: Specific, challenging goals tend to motivate behavior more effectively than vague goals.

Implementation Intentions

Peter Gollwitzer.

An implementation intention is an if-then plan that specifies when, where, and how a behavior will occur.

James-Lange Theory

Physiological reactions happen first, and then we experience emotion.

Example: You see a bear → Your heart races → You feel afraid.

Key idea: Body reaction FIRST → Emotion SECOND.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Physiological reactions and emotional experiences happen at the same time.

Example: You see a bear → Your heart races AND you feel afraid simultaneously.

Key idea: Body reaction + Emotion happen together.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

Emotion results from two factors:

1. Physiological arousal（生理唤醒）

2. Cognitive label（认知解释）

Example: You see a bear → Your heart races → You interpret the situation as dangerous → You feel fear.

Key idea: Physical arousal + Cognitive label = Emotion.

Lazarus Cognitive Appraisal Theory

Our interpretation or evaluation of a situation determines our emotional response.

Example: You see a bear → You evaluate it as dangerous → You feel afraid.

Key idea: Thinking/Appraisal FIRST → Emotion.

Culture and Emotion

how people express emotions and which emotions they prefer to feel.

Display Rules

Cultural and social expectations about when, where, and how people should express emotions.

Simple meaning: Rules about how you SHOW your emotions.

Ideal Affect

The emotional states that people want or prefer to experience.

Simple meaning: How you WANT to FEEL.

Social Referencing

Using another person's emotional reactions to decide how to behave in an unfamiliar or uncertain situation.

Simple meaning: Looking at someone else's reaction to figure out what you should do.

Empathy

You understand how someone feels and may feel something similar.

Example: Your friend fails an exam. You remember how disappointing failure feels and emotionally connect with their sadness.

Sympathy

You feel bad FOR someone, but you don't necessarily experience their emotions.

Example: Your friend's grandmother passes away. You feel sorry for your friend and offer support.

Secondary / Self-Conscious Emotions

emotions that happen when you think about yourself and how others may judge you. Guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment.

Guilt

A negative emotional response to evaluating something you did as wrong.

Simple meaning: You feel bad about your behavior.

Example: You cheat on an exam and regret what you did.

Thought: "I did something bad."

Shame

Definition: A negative emotional response involving evaluation of yourself as inadequate or bad.

Simple meaning: You feel bad about yourself.

Example: You cheat on an exam and think you are a terrible person.

Thought: "I am bad."

Cognitive Reappraisal

Changing how you think about or interpret a situation to change your emotional response.

Simple meaning: Change your THINKING to change how you FEEL.

Gross's Process Model

explains how people can regulate emotions at different stages of an emotional experience.

Two important strategies for your exam are Cognitive Reappraisal and Expressive Suppression.

Expressive Suppression

Controlling or hiding the outward expression of an emotion.

Simple meaning: Hide what you SHOW, even if you still FEEL it.

Affect Labeling

Identifying and putting your emotional experiences into words.

Simple meaning: Naming what you are feeling.

Example:

You are nervous before an exam.

Instead of just feeling uncomfortable, you say:

"I'm feeling anxious because I'm worried about my exam grade."

By naming your emotion, you may better understand and manage it.

Key idea: Name your emotion → May help regulate your emotional response.

Delay of Gratification

Resisting an immediate reward to obtain a more valuable reward in the future.

Simple meaning: Give up something enjoyable NOW for something better LATER. Famous Example: Marshmallow Test

Internalizing Problems

Emotional difficulties that are directed inward, toward oneself.

Simple meaning: The person experiences distress internally rather than expressing it through disruptive behavior.

Example: A student is extremely anxious about school but stays quiet and avoids talking to classmates.

Keyword: INWARD → Feelings inside

Externalizing Problems

Behavioral difficulties expressed outwardly, often affecting other people.

Simple meaning: The person shows their difficulties through outward behaviors.A student frequently fights with classmates, argues with teachers, and breaks school rules.

Keyword: OUTWARD → Behaviors outside.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

A persistent pattern of angry or irritable mood, argumentative or defiant behavior, or vindictiveness.

A child repeatedly argues with teachers, refuses instructions, and becomes angry when corrected over several months.

Key idea: ODD = DEFIANCE + ANGER.

Conduct Disorder (CD)

A child or adolescent repeatedly engages in serious harmful or rule-breaking behaviors

A teenager repeatedly steals, threatens classmates, and intentionally damages school property.

Key idea: CD = SERIOUS RULE-BREAKING + VIOLATION OF RIGHTS.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

A theory proposing that people's perception of their remaining time influences their social and emotional goals.

Example 1: A young adult who sees many future opportunities may prioritize meeting new people and exploring different experiences.

Example 2: An older adult who perceives their remaining time as limited may prefer spending time with close family and friends rather than meeting many new people.

Fundamental Attribution Error

You blame someone's PERSONALITY instead of considering their SITUATION.

Internal Attribution

Explains behavior through personality or traits

External Attribution

Explains behavior through circumstances

Actor–Observer Distinction

When OTHERS make mistakes, we blame their personality. When WE make mistakes, we blame the situation.

OTHERS = Personality; SELF = Situation.

Cognitive Dissonance

You feel uncomfortable because what you BELIEVE and what you DO do not match.

Example 1: Smoking

A person believes smoking is unhealthy but continues smoking.

Central-Route Persuasion

Persuasion that occurs when people carefully evaluate evidence, facts, and logical arguments.

You want to buy a new laptop.

Before buying it, you:

• Compare prices.

• Read product reviews.

• Research battery life.

• Compare performance and specifications.

Peripheral-Route Persuasion

You are convinced because something LOOKS GOOD or SEEMS APPEALING, not because of strong evidence.

Example

You see your favorite celebrity advertising a skincare product.

You buy it because:

• The celebrity is attractive.

• You trust the celebrity.

• The advertisement looks exciting.

• The product seems popular.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Ask for something SMALL first, then ask for something BIGGER.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Ask for something BIG first. After someone says NO, ask for something SMALLER.

Conformity

Changing behavior or judgment to match a group.

Example: Changing your answer because everyone else gives a different answer.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to gain acceptance or avoid rejection.

Example: Laughing at a joke you don't find funny because everyone else is laughing.

Keyword: Fit in.

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because you believe others have more accurate information.

Example: Following a group of travelers because you assume they know the correct route.

Keyword: Be correct.

Chameleon Effect

Unintentionally imitating another person's posture, gestures, or behavior.

Example: Crossing your arms after your conversation partner crosses theirs.

involves group influence

Obedience

Following a direct instruction from an authority figure.

Example: Continuing a procedure because a supervisor orders you to do so.

involves authority instructions.

Group Dynamics

Group dynamics refers to how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by being part of a group.

Simple meaning: How being around other people changes the way we behave.

Social Facilitation

Definition: The presence of other people strengthens our dominant or most likely response.

Simple meaning: Being watched by others can make you perform BETTER on easy tasks but WORSE on difficult tasks.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people to put in less effort when working in a group than when working individually, especially when individual contributions cannot be identified.

Simple meaning: People become LAZIER in a group because they think others will do the work. LESS EFFORT IN GROUPS.

Deindividuation

A reduction in individual self-awareness or feelings of personal accountability in certain group situations.

Simple meaning: People may behave differently because they feel ANONYMOUS in a crowd. ANONYMITY + REDUCED SELF-AWARENESS.

Group Polarization

Group discussion strengthens members' initial attitudes or tendencies, making their collective position more extreme.

Simple meaning: After discussing something with people who share your opinion, your opinion becomes STRONGER.

Example

Before discussion, a group of students believes an exam is somewhat unfair.

After discussing the exam together, they become convinced it is extremely unfair and demand that it be canceled.

Groupthink

A group decision-making problem in which the desire for harmony and agreement interferes with critical thinking.

Simple meaning: People agree with the group because they don't want to create conflict, even when they have doubts.Everyone agrees → Nobody questions.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for an individual to be less likely to help someone in an emergency when other people are present.

Simple meaning: When many people witness an emergency, each person may assume someone else will help.

LESS LIKELY TO HELP WHEN OTHERS ARE PRESENT. Focus: Helping

Diffusion of Responsibility

The tendency for individuals to feel less personally responsible when responsibility is shared among multiple people.

Simple meaning: "Someone else will probably take care of it." SOMEONE ELSE WILL HELP

Pluralistic Ignorance

People incorrectly assume that others interpret a situation differently because they observe their behavior.

Simple meaning: Everyone looks calm, so you assume nothing is wrong.

Example: A fire alarm sounds, but everyone stays seated. You assume there is no danger because nobody else is reacting.

Keyword: OTHERS ARE CALM → MUST BE SAFE.

Evaluation Apprehension

Fear of being negatively judged or embarrassed by others. You see someone lying on the ground but hesitate because you're worried people will laugh if the person is only resting.

Keyword: FEAR OF EMBARRASSMENT.

Failure to Notice

Sometimes people do not help because they simply fail to notice that someone needs assistance.

Example: A student wearing headphones walks past someone asking for help without hearing them.

Keyword: NOT NOTICING.

Aggression

any behavior intended to physically or psychologically harm another person who does not want to be harmed Example: Deliberately spreading a damaging rumor.

Online Disinhibition

The tendency for people to show less restraint when communicating online than when interacting face-to-face. LESS RESTRAINT ONLINE.