Exam 4 Psych

11, 12, 15

Social Psychology

the study of how the immediate social context as well as broader cultural environments influence peoples thoughts, feelings, and actions

transference

the tendency to treat one person as if they process the traits or characteristics of another more familiar person

false consensus

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people’s beliefs and attitudes are similar to our own

impression management

a series of strategies that people use to influence the impressions that others form of them

attribution

assignment of casual explanation for an event, action, or outcome

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to assume that peoples actions are more the result of their internal dispositions than of the situational context

self-serving attributions

the attribution people make for their own behaviors or outcomes: we tend to make dispositional attributions for positive events but situational attributions for negative events

affective forecasting errors

people’s inability to accurately predict the emotional reactions they will have to events

attitude

an orientation toward some target stimulus that is composed of an affective feeling, a cognitive belief, and a behavioral motivation toward the target

implicit attitudes

an automatically activated evaluation of a stimulus ranging from positive to negative

explicit attitudes

the consciously reported evaluation a person has in response to a target stimulus

elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

a theory of persuasion contending that attitudes can change by two different routes; a central route that focuses on the strength of the argument and a peripheral route that is sensitive to more superficial cues

cognitive dissonance

a sense of conflict between peoples attitudes and actions that motivates efforts to restore cognitive consistency

social norms

the patterns of behavior, traditions, and preferences that are tacitly approved of by a given culture or subculture

conformity

the process by which people implicitly mimic, adopt, or internalize the behaviors and preferences of those around them

informational social influence

pressure to conform to others actions or beliefs based on a desire to behave correctly or gain an accurate understanding of the world

normative social influence

pressure to conform to others actions or beliefs in order to gain approval from others or avoid social sanctions

social facilitation

an enhancement of the dominant behavioral response when performing a task in the mere presence of others; easy or well-learned tasks are performed better, but difficult or novel tasks are performed worse

social loafing

the tendency for individuals to expend less effort on a task when they are doing it with others rather than alone

group polarization

a tendency for peoples attitudes to become more extreme after they discuss an issue with like-minded others

groupthink

a form of biased group decision making whereby pressure to achieve consensus leads members of the group to avoid voicing unpopular suggestions

general aggression model

an integrative framework of the various factors and psychological processes that contribute to an act of aggression

weapons effect

a phenomenon where by simple exposure to a gun or weapon can increase aggressive responses by bringing violent thoughts to mind

kin selection

an evolved or adaptive strategy of assisting those who share one’s genes, even at personal cost, as a means of increasing the odds of genetic survival

norm of reciprocity

an automatic tendency to help others who have helped in the past or are expected to help in the future

empathy gap

the inability to accurately simulate the mental suffering of another person

bystander effect

the lower likelihood of people coming to the aid of a victim when in the presence of other observers than if they are alone

pluralistic ignorance

a situation that can occur when people are collectively unaware of each others true attitudes or beliefs

diffusion of responsibility

a tendency for people in a group to assume that someone else is in a better position to act or has already acted

stereotypes

mental representations or schemas that summarize the beliefs and/or associations we have for a group of people

prejudice

a negative attitude toward a group or members of a group

discrimination

a tendency for individuals to receive different treatment or outcomes as a result of their membership in a given social group

realistic group conflict theory

a theory asserting that negative intergroup attitudes develop whenever groups compete against one another for access to the same scarce resources

social identity theory

a theory that explains why people develop a more positive attitude toward their own ingroup than toward outgroups

symbolic racism

the tendency to redirect one’s prejudice toward a racial or ethnic group to the policies that might benefit that group

implicit racial bias

differential treatment resulting from the automatic activation of, and failure to control, negative attitudes or stereotypes of a racial group

aversive racism

a tendency, even among egalitarian-minded people, to have unconscious negative reactions to people of racial or ethnic outgroups

contact hypothesis

the proposal that prejudice can be reduced through sanctioned, friendly, and cooperative interactions between members of different groups working together as equals toward a common goal

parental investment theory

a theory that predicts sex differences in attraction due to the greater time, effort, and risk assumed by women than by men during procreation

triangular theory of love

a model that specifies passion, intimacy and commitment as distinct elements that combine in various ways that lead to different types of love

developmental psychology

the scientific study of how people change, physically, cognitively, and emotionally from infancy through old age

stages

distinct segments of an organisms life with sharp differences or discontinuities between them

maturation

a series of biological growth processes that enable orderly growth, relatively independently of experience

cross-sectional design

a methodological approach to studying development that compares participants of different age groups to one another

longitudinal design

a methodological approach studying development that tracks participants across time and compares each participant at different time points

sequential design

a methodological approach to studying development that tracks multiple age groups across time and compares different age groups to one another, as well as compares participants to themselves at different time points

zygote

a fertilized egg, formed by the union of a sperm and egg

embryo

an unborn, developing offspring, identified in humans between the 2nd and 8th week of pregnancy

neural tube

a tubular structure formed early in the embryonic stage from which the brain and spinal cord develop

fetus

an unborn, developing offspring, identified in humans between the ninth week of pregnancy and birth

down syndrome

a developmental disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. It is characterized by intellectual disabilities, delays in motor development, and increased risk for a range of health problems

teratogens

environmental agents that can interfere with healthy fetal development

fetal alcohol syndrome

a developmental disorder that affects children exposed to alcohol during prenatal development. Its effects include a range of learning and behavioral challenges and differences in physical size and facial characteristics

reflexes

automatic patterns of motor responses that are triggered by specific types of sensory stimulation

habituation

a simple form of learning that involves a decreased response to repeated stimulation

dishabituation

an increase in responsiveness to something novel following a period of habituation

motor development

changes in the ability to coordinate and perform bodily movements

cognitive development

changes in all of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

schemas

concepts or mental models that represent our experiences

assimilation

in Piaget’s theory, the process of using an existing schema to interpret a new experience

accommodation

in Piaget’s theory, the process of revising existing schemas to incorporate information from a new experience

sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)

children develop knowledge through their senses and actions but cannot yet think using symbols, namely language

preoperational stage (2-7 years)

children master the use of symbols but struggle;e to see situations from mutable perspectives or imagine how situations can change

concrete operational stage (7-12 years)

children become capable of using multiple perspectives and their imagination to solve complex problems, but they are able to apply this thinking only to concrete objects or events

formal operational stage (12 years and up)

adolescents become able to reason about abstract problems and hypothetical propositions

object permanence

the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are temporally out of sight

social referencing

a process of using others facial expressions for information about how to react to a situation

attachment

the strong, enduring, emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver

imprinting

a mechanism for establishing attachment early in life that operates according to a relatively simple rule pf attaching to the first moving object an organism sees

temperament

a persons characteristic patterns of emotion and behavior that are evident from an early age and argued to be genetically determined

secure attachment

Children who have a secure attachment relationship with their caregiver use that caregiver as a secure base. They explore, play with the toys, and even make wary overtures to the stranger, so long as the caregiver is present. Whenever the caregiver leaves, these infants show minor distress.

Insecure attachment

when the child doesn’t use a caregiver as a secure base and is not reassured after separation

insecure / avoiding attachment

they act distant and aloof while the caregiver is present, and although they sometimes search for them in their absence, they typically ignore them when they return

insecure / ambivalent attachment

they do not explore, even in the caregivers pretense, and become quite upset when the caregiver leaves

childhood

the period of life spanning the end of infancy (about age 2) and the start of adolescence

symbolic representation

the use of words, sounds, gestures, visual images, or objects to stand for other things

operations

in childhood, the manipulation of schemas

conservation

the idea that the physical properties of an object, such as mass, volume, and mounter, remain constant despite superficial changes in the objects shape or form

concrete operational stage

In Piaget’s theory, the period of development from age 7 to 12, during which a child becomes capable of transforming and interrelating schemas to solve complex problems, but is able to apply this thinking only to concrete objects or events

egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the difficulty that preoperational children have with thinking about how objects or situations are perceived by there people

theory of mind

the understanding that we and other people have minds, that these minds represent the world in different ways, and that these representations can explain and predict how others will behave

sociocultural view of development

Lev Vygotsky’s proposal that the Childs mind grows through social interaction with knowledgeable others

scaffolding

a process of promoting cognitive development by actively challenging and supporting children as they attempt things that are beyond their current capabilities

gender socialization

the process by which people internalize social expectation and attitudes associated with their perceived gender

gender schema

a mental representation for the concept of gender that includes assumptions about how people with different genders are supposed to think, feel, and act

authoritarian parents

low on responsiveness and highly demanding. provide minimal emotional support yet impose strict rules and standards for behavior and expect absolute obedience

permissive parents

high on responsiveness and low on the demanding scale. very warm and attentive to their children, but they set few rules and restrictions

authoritative parents

both very responsive and very demanding. they establish and enforce clear rules and structure but explain their reasoning. flexible in response to their children’s opinions and reasonable requests

disengaged parents

neither responsive nor demanding. they impose few rules and responsibilities, but they are also relatively insensitive to their children’s needs

adolescence

the period of transition between childhood and adulthood

puberty

the period of sexual maturation during which male and females become capable of reproduction

primary sex characteristics

body structures, such as ovaries, testes, and external genitalia, that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonproductive body structures, such as hips, torsos, voices, and body hair, that make th body look more “adult”

preconventional stage

in Kohlberg’s theory, a period in moral development in which people make moral judgements based on self-interest, such as avoiding punishments and gaining rewards

conventional stage

in Kohlberg’s theory a period in moral developmental in which people make moral judgements based on caring for others and upholding social roles and rules

postconventional stage

in Kohlberg’s theory, a period in moral development in which people make moral judgements based on ideals and broad moral principles

social identity

a sense of identity that is rooted in group memberships

emerging adulthood

the period between adolescent and adulthood, roughly the ages of 18 to 25, when people take time to finish schooling, gain financial independence from their parent, and establish careers and families

social clock

a set of norms that govern the typical timing of life milestones like marriage, parenthood, and retirement