Critical Thinking Midterm Study Guide: Arguments and Informal Fallacies

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering critical thinking fundamentals, argument structure, deductive and inductive logic, and informal fallacies.

Straw Man

Changing a person's argument into a weaker or more extreme version so it is easier to attack; misrepresenting a person's argument to knock it down.

Tu Quoque

Rejecting someone's argument because they do not personally follow it; pointing out hypocrisy does not disprove anything.

Ad Hominem

Attacking the person making the argument instead of addressing the argument itself.

Argument from Authority

Claiming something must be true simply because an authority figure says it is; credibility matters, but who says it does not guarantee truth.

Argument from Tradition

Claiming something is true or the best way because it is a tradition or has been done for a while; old does not mean right.

Reductio ad Absurdum

Taking an argument to an absurd conclusion to criticize a person's position or ideal reasoning; pushing an argument to absurd results.

Slippery Slope

Claiming that one small action will lead to increasingly worse outcomes without sufficient evidence or logical connections; one step does not inherently lead to disaster.

Suppressed Evidence

Leaving out information or ignoring important facts that go against your conclusion.

False Analogy

Assuming two things that are alike in one way are alike in another way; one comparison does not prove they are the same.

Red Herring

Changing the subject to distract from the original issue; a distraction or false lead.

False Dilemma

Presenting only two choices or possibilities when more options actually exist; pretending there are only two choices.

Fallacy of Many Questions (Loaded Question)

Asking a question that assumes something is already true, even though it has not been established; a question loaded with an unproven assumption.

Gambler's Fallacy

Believing that previous random events alter the odds of the next independent event; random events do not owe a specific result.

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

Concluding that because one thing happened after another, the first thing caused the second, even though they may be completely unrelated ($X$ then $Y$; therefore $X$ caused $Y$).

Equivocation

Using the same word with two different meanings within one argument; one word used with multiple meanings.

Hasty Generalization

Making a broad conclusion based on little evidence; using too few examples to judge everyone or an entire group.

Fallacy of Composition

Assuming that what is true of the parts must also be true of the whole (parts to whole).

Fallacy of Division

Assuming that what is true of the whole must also be true of its individual parts (whole to parts).

Ad Hoc

Making up an excuse to protect or save your argument/claim when evidence goes against it.

Argument from Ignorance

Claiming that something is true because nobody has proven it false, or that it is false because nobody has proven it true; no proof against something does not mean it is true.

Begging the Question (Circular Reasoning)

Using your conclusion as part of the reason for proving that same conclusion; an argument that goes in a circle without providing real proof.

Double Standard

Judging two people or situations by different rules when the same standard should apply.

Ambiguous Argument

An argument that can be interpreted in multiple different ways.(Unclear)

Explanation

A statement that clarifies why or how an accepted fact occurred, rather than arguing that it is true. Example: "The sidewalk is wet because it rained last night."

Description

Facts functioning as an illustration

Advice

Conclusion Indicators

Words that signal a conclusion follows, including: therefore, so, hence, consequently, it follows that, in conclusion, and accordingly.

Premise Indicators

Words that signal a premise is being provided, including: as, as shown, as indicated by, given that, for, and for the reason that.

Enthymeme (Incomplete Argument)

An argument that contains an unstated premise or an unstated conclusion, often occurring because the arguer thinks the missing part is obvious or dubious.

Premise

A reason or statement offered to support a conclusion.

Conclusion

The claim that an argument is trying to establish.

Deductive Argument

An argument that attempts to prove something with certainty and guarantee the truth of its conclusion.

Inductive Argument

An argument that aims to make a conclusion more likely (not promised) based on evidence or patterns, evaluated by whether it is strong or weak.

Valid

A deductive argument structure where the conclusion must be true if the premises were true.

Invalid

A deductive argument structure where the premises could be true while the conclusion is false.

Sound

A deductive argument that is valid and contains all true premises.

Unsound

A deductive argument that is invalid, has at least one false premise, or both.