Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Conservatism, Nationalism, and Socialism

What is ideology?

A belief system distinguished by coherence, stability, and contrast with other sets of ideas.

What does coherence in ideology refer to?

A set of ideas interconnected or linked by an underlying logic.

Define 'constraint' in the context of ideology.

The idea that attitudes are linked/interdependent, where holding one belief predicts holding another.

What does anti-establishment mean?

Being against or distrustful of powerful institutions and elites that traditionally run politics or society.

How is ideology measured spatially?

By representing it on a graph with multiple axes, each axis representing one dimension, typically bipolar.

What is the ANES 7-point scale used for?

To measure ideological positions from 'very liberal' to 'very conservative' since 1972.

What are the two dimensions of ideology mentioned?

Social issues (e.g., abortion, same-sex marriage) and economic issues (e.g., taxation, government spending).

What is symbolic ideology?

The label or identity associated with an ideology, often tied to emotional attachment.

What is operational ideology?

The actual issue positions held by an individual, which may differ from their symbolic ideology.

What is a criticism of bipolarity in spatial approaches to ideology?

It assumes liberal and conservative are opposites, ignoring that people may define these labels differently.

What does 'thick description' refer to in ideologies?

The idea that ideologies are meaningful through distinctive combinations of ideas and symbols.

What are the core beliefs of liberalism?

Protecting individual freedom, rights, equality, and personal choice, with government ensuring these rights.

What does conservatism emphasize?

Tradition, stability, authority, and maintaining established institutions, with caution towards change.

What is socialism focused on?

Economic and social equality, advocating for greater social or collective control of important resources.

Define nationalism.

The belief that people sharing a political identity as a nation should pursue their interests and self-governance.

What was Edmund Burke's view on individualism?

He valued individual freedom but warned against the risks of excessive individualism.

What historical event is associated with Burke's criticism of liberalism?

The French Revolution, which he viewed as driven by liberal ideals leading to violent destruction of traditions.

What was the 'Cult of Reason'?

A state-sponsored atheistic religion established during the French Revolution, replacing traditional religious practices.

What is the conservative synthesis?

The idea that while individualism is important, respect for traditions and customs is also necessary.

How did Burke view abstract ideologies?

He was against abstract quests for maximizing equality, liberty, and wealth, favoring pragmatism instead.

What is pragmatism in the context of ideology?

Focusing on what actually works in reality rather than on abstract theories.

What is the significance of the secular/islamist divide in the Middle East?

It illustrates the complexity of ideologies that cannot be reduced to simple dimensions.

What are the risks associated with excessive individualism according to Burke?

It can lead to the destruction of cherished traditions and societal norms.

What is the relationship between symbolic and operational ideology as per Ellis & Stimson (2009)?

Individuals can be symbolically conservative but operationally liberal, indicating a disconnect between identity and issue positions.

What is the belief that humanity is divided into various nations?

Nationalism

What does nationalism emphasize about members of a nation?

Members ought to value their nation/national identity.

What is a key characteristic of a nation according to nationalism?

A nation ought to have some form of political sovereignty, such as its own state.

When did nationalism emerge as a political ideology?

At the end of the 18th century and developed rapidly in the 19th century.

What historical context is associated with the rise of nationalism?

The Age of Nationalisms.

How is early nationalism (late 18th century) connected to liberalism?

It is closely tied to the ideals of individual freedom and self-rule emphasized in the American and French revolutions.

What defines a nation according to common beliefs?

Nations should be defined by deeper, involuntary ties such as common historical origins, shared race or ethnicity, and culture.

What is Herder's emphasis regarding nations?

Herder emphasizes the importance of language and culture over religion, ethnicity, or history.

What criteria does Renan reject for defining a nation?

Geography, religion, dynasty, race, and even shared language.

How does Renan define a nation?

As a voluntary bond defined by shared lived experience and commitment to a shared future.

What is the difference between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism?

Ethnic nationalism is based on non-voluntary membership, while civic nationalism is based on voluntaristic and inclusive principles.

What is Saint-Simon's main argument in 'On the Industrial System'?

Society is undergoing a transformation through industrialism and scientific knowledge rather than warfare.

What does Marx and Engels argue in 'The Communist Manifesto'?

History is made by class struggle between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class).

What are the two classes under capitalism according to Marx?

Bourgeoisie (capitalist/owner class) and Proletariat (working class).

What is Marx's view of capitalism?

It creates exploitation and turns human relationships into economic ones.

What is Lenin's adaptation of Marxist theory?

The development of a vanguard party of professional revolutionaries to lead the working class.

What is Mao's approach to revolution in China?

A 'new democratic' revolution first, followed by socialism, including peasants in the revolutionary alliance.

What does socialism aim to address?

It emerged as a reaction against laissez-faire capitalism and harsh working conditions.

What is the goal of communism?

The abolition of private property and the establishment of a classless and stateless society.

What did Saint-Simon advocate for in society?

A planned economy guided by industrial and scientific expertise for the benefit of productive members.

What is Marx's view of historical progression?

It moves from primitive communism to ancient society, feudal society, capitalist society, and finally to communism.

How does fascism differ from Marxist socialism?

Fascism rejects class struggle and internationalism, focusing instead on will, power, and myth.

What is the definition of fascism according to scholars?

A genus of political ideology characterized by populist ultra-nationalism.

What recurring themes are associated with fascism?

The 'new man,' a 'holistic nation,' and a 'third way' between capitalism and socialism.

What was the outcome of the Spanish Civil War?

Franco's eventual victory, leading to a dictatorship.

What does the term 'welfare capitalism' refer to?

A modern system that differs from 19th-century capitalism, incorporating mass public services.