Management 330 Exam 2

Motivation

The processes that shape how hard you try and where you direct your effort and how long you keep going. (Includes individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal)

Intensity

How hard someone tries to achieve a goal.

Direction

Where someone applies their effort.

Persistence

How long someone keeps exerting effort.

Ability and motivation model

Performance depends on both the capacity to perform a task and the motivation to do it.

KSA

Knowledge is what you know. Skills are what you can do proficiently. Abilities are capacities that let you perform.

Herzberg's two-factor theory

Job dissatisfaction and job satisfaction have different sources. Hygiene factors reduce dissatisfaction and motivators increase satisfaction.

Hygiene factors

Job conditions such as pay or supervision that can reduce dissatisfaction when improved.

Motivators

Aspects of the work itself such as achievement or responsibility that can increase job satisfaction.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

A model in which higher needs become more salient as lower needs are substantially satisfied. Physiological → safety → belonging → esteem → self-actualization.

Alderfer's ERG theory

A model of existence / relatedness / growth needs. Several needs can motivate a person at once.

Fulfillment-progression

A shift toward higher needs as lower needs are satisfied.

Frustration-regression

A shift toward lower needs when higher needs are blocked.

Need for achievement (nAch)

The desire to excel or meet a standard of performance.

Need for power (nPow)

The desire to influence other people.

Need for affiliation (nAff)

The desire for close and friendly relationships.

Theory X

McGregor's assumption that employees tend to avoid work and need supervision or control.

Theory Y

McGregor's assumption that employees can direct their own work and accept responsibility under supportive conditions.

Self-determination theory

A theory that satisfying three needs supports motivation. The needs are autonomy / competence / relatedness.

Competence

The need to feel capable and effective.

Relatedness

The need to feel connected to other people.

Autonomous motivation

Motivation that comes from personal interest or values.

Controlled motivation

Motivation that comes from pressure or obligation.

Cognitive evaluation theory

The idea that rewards perceived as controlling can weaken intrinsic motivation while feedback that supports competence can strengthen it.

Regulatory focus theory

A theory that people pursue goals by seeking gains through promotion focus or avoiding losses through prevention focus.

Promotion focus

An orientation toward gains and advancement.

Prevention focus

An orientation toward fulfilling duties and avoiding losses.

Job engagement

The investment of physical and mental energy as well as emotion in work.

Reinforcement theory

The idea that consequences shape whether a behavior is repeated.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant condition to increase a behavior.

Punishment

A consequence intended to decrease a behavior.

Social learning theory

The idea that people learn behavior by observing and modeling others as well as through direct experience.

Goal-setting theory

The idea that specific and challenging goals can improve performance when people commit to them and receive feedback.

Management by objectives (MBO)

A process in which managers and employees agree on specific objectives and deadlines and review progress regularly.

Self-efficacy

Belief in your ability to perform a specific task.

Sources of self-efficacy

Mastery through practice / observing a successful model / verbal encouragement / arousal or activation.

Vroom's expectancy theory

A motivation model expressed as expectancy × instrumentality × valence.

Expectancy

Belief that effort will lead to good performance.

Instrumentality

Belief that good performance will lead to a particular outcome or reward.

Valence

How much someone values the outcome or reward.

Equity theory

The idea that employees judge fairness by comparing their outcomes-to-inputs ratio with someone else's.

Distributive justice

Perceived fairness of the outcome or reward.

Procedural justice

Perceived fairness of the process used to make a decision.

Interactional justice

Perceived fairness in how decisions are communicated and how people are treated.

Informational justice

Perceived fairness of the honesty and adequacy of a decision's explanation.

Interpersonal justice

Perceived fairness of the dignity and respect shown to people.

Job Characteristics Model (JCM)

A model linking five job dimensions to psychological states that influence motivation. Skill variety / task identity / task significance / autonomy / feedback.

Skill variety

The degree to which a job uses different skills and activities.

Task identity

The degree to which a job involves completing a whole and identifiable piece of work.

Task significance

The degree to which a job affects other people.

Autonomy

The freedom to make choices. In job design it means discretion over work methods or scheduling.

Feedback (JCM)

Clear information from doing the work about how well you performed.

Experienced meaningfulness

The sense that work is worthwhile. It comes from skill variety / task identity / task significance.

Experienced responsibility

The sense of personal accountability for work outcomes. Autonomy supports it.

Knowledge of results

Awareness of how well you performed. Feedback supports it.

Job rotation

Periodically moving employees among jobs or tasks.

Job enlargement

Adding more tasks at the same level of responsibility.

Job enrichment

Adding decision authority or greater responsibility to a job.

Flextime

A schedule with flexible start and end times that often includes core hours.

Job sharing

An arrangement in which employees divide one full-time role.

Remote work

Working away from the employer's usual worksite.

Hybrid work

A schedule combining remote and on-site work.

Internal pay equity

Fairness of pay relative to the value of other jobs within the organization.

External pay equity

Fairness of pay relative to similar jobs in the labor market.

Piece-rate pay

Pay based on the number of units produced.

Merit pay

Pay based on an individual performance appraisal.

Bonus

A separate payment tied to performance or results.

Profit sharing

A pay plan that distributes a share of organizational profit to employees.

Employee stock ownership plan (ESOP)

A plan that gives employees an ownership stake in the company.

Flexible benefits

A benefits plan that allows employees to choose among options that fit their needs.

Employee recognition

Acknowledgment of a specific contribution that can reinforce behavior and support a sense of achievement.

Formal group

A group created by the organization to carry out work.

Informal group

A group that forms naturally around friendships or shared interests.

Social identity

The part of a person's self-concept that comes from group membership.

Individualism

An emphasis on personal goals and independence.

Collectivism

An emphasis on group goals and shared interests.

Punctuated equilibrium model

A model in which a temporary group sets an early direction and often changes course at its time midpoint before finishing near the deadline.

Tuckman's stages of group development

Forming → storming → norming → performing → adjourning.

Five traditional group properties

Roles / norms / status / size / cohesion.

Role perception

How you think you should act in a role.

Role expectations

How others think you should act in a role.

Interrole conflict

Competing demands from two or more roles.

Psychological contract

Unwritten mutual expectations between employees and their organization.

Group norms

Shared standards for how group members are expected to behave.

Psychological safety

A shared belief that it is safe to speak up or ask questions or admit mistakes.

Group status

Relative social rank in a group based on power or contributions or valued traits.

Social loafing

Putting in less individual effort when working in a group.

Free riding

Benefiting from a group's work while contributing little.

Group cohesion

Members' attraction and attachment to the group. Cohesion can reinforce either high or low performance norms.

Diversity as variety

Differences in kinds of knowledge or background among group members.

Diversity as separation

Differences in values or opinions that can divide group members.

Diversity as disparity

Unequal distribution of status or power or resources among group members.

Group faultline

A potential subgroup split that forms when multiple member characteristics line up.

Groupthink

Pressure to agree that suppresses dissent and critical evaluation.

Groupshift (group polarization)

A shift toward a more extreme version of the group's initial tendency after discussion.

Brainstorming

Generating ideas as a group while deferring criticism.

Production blocking

Loss of ideas when people have to wait their turn to speak during brainstorming.

Nominal group technique

A structured process in which members generate ideas alone and then share and clarify them before ranking them privately.

Work group

A group that shares information to support members' individual responsibilities.

Work team

A group whose members coordinate interdependent work to produce a collective result.