PSYCH 100 EXAM 1

Define psychology (think term roots)

Scientific study of the behavior and the mind. psyche: breath, spirit, soul; logos: study of

When was psych discipline established?

mid 19th century

what are the subject matters of psych?

mind, brain, and behavior

how is psych studied? what elements does it choose to study?

physiology—scientific study of both behavior and mind; scientific study—knowledge is discovered by empirical observation; behavior—any kind of observable action, including words, gestures, responses, and biological activity; mind—the contents of conscious experience, including sensations, perceptions, thoughts, and emotions; soul—transpersonal study (spirituality of psych)

What is Cartesian Dualism?

Developed by René Descartes, argues that the mind and body are separate. If separate the mind is inherently unknowable

Is cartesian dualism supported in modern day? Why?

No. The mind is a result of brain activity. We can use inferences about mental states based on behavior

what are the types of psychologists? what do they do?

clinical psychologists (identify, prevent, and relieve psychological distress or dysfunction), applied psychologists (extending psychological principles to practical problems in the world), and research psychologists (conduct research to discover the basic principles of behavior and mind)

What types of clinical psychologists are there? what are the required trainings? what are examples of activities of study?

Clinical psychologists – identify, prevent, and relieve psychological distress or dysfunction

• Required training: take the GRE for graduate school, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) or Doctor of Psychology (PsyD)

• Example activities

  • Research: evaluate predictive value of new psychological assessment

  • Practice: manage client’s ADHD symptoms

Psychiatrists – same as clinical psychologists; also determine physical sources of illness

• Required training: take the MCAT, medical school and residency, Doctor of Medicine (MD or DO)

• Example activities:

  • Research: Study of prevalence of autism in different populations over the years

  • Practice: help a patient manage auditory hallucinations

Counseling psychologists – help people manage life transitions

• Required training: Take the GRE, graduate school, Doctor of Education (EdD) or Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

• Example activities:

  • Research: study stress in college

  • Practice: work with a client going through a break up, starting college, etc.

Applied psychologist – extend psychology to practical problems. They choose a special area to study, like health, education, sports, or the workplace

• Required training: masters or doctorate

• Example activities

  • Research: testing if certain interview styles help pick better job candidates

  • Practice: help athletes stay focused and confident during big games

what are the settings that the types of psychologists work in?

Clinical (clinic and academic); applied (private industry, schools, academic); research psychologists (academic and private industry)

Define nature vs nurture (nativism vs empiricism)

nativism — we are born with knowledge. empiricism — gaining knowledge via experience

which is more significant: nature or nurture?

nature

Define natural selection. Give an example

traits which improve the likelihood of survival are more likely to be passed down through generations (unfavorable mutations selected against, and favorable mutations are likely to survive). Ex: our brains more wired to detect fear rather than contentment

Define structuralism

study the structure of the mind by breaking it down into elementary parts (sensations and feelings). Designed by Wilhelm Wundt (father of modern psychology) and Edward Titchener (mentee)

what was the method for structuralism?

systematic introspection — an early psychological and sociological method where trained individuals closely examine and report their own conscious thoughts, sensations, and feelings under controlled conditions (via self-reports)

what did Wilhelm Wundt study?

immediate conscious experience as well as structuralism

What is functionalism?

interested in purpose of a process rather than its components. influenced by darwin’s “what is the adaptive value of mental processes.” extended psych into individual differences and applied uses

who are the main people in the functionalist movement?

William James and James Rowland Angell

Who piloted the idea of psychology as “the study of the self”?

Mary Whiton Calkins (first woman to have research lab and be APA pres). She said that self, or personality, is an adaption to the environment

What is behaviorism?

focused on only observable behavior (not interested in self-report). Response to introspection and the “unknowable mind” (they are against it)

Who were the main figures in behaviorist movement?

John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner

What is Psychoanalysis?

understanding the unconscious mind. Ex: free association, dream analysis, and exploration of the unconscious mind. Focus on Id (sex, food —> animal instinct), superego (morality), and ego (what comes out and we express)

Who was the main figure in psychoanalysis?

Freud

What was the focus of Humanism and positive psych?

focused on positive aspects of the human condition and capacity for change.

Who were the significant figures in the Humanism and positive psych movement?

Carl Rogers (promoted client-centered therapy), Abraham Maslow, and Martin Seligman

What was the cognitive revolution?

renewed focus on mental states and internal processes “knowing and perceiving”. Heavily influenced by computers and technology. Reprioritized mental events and explanation for complex cognition

Psychologists use direct and indirect observations to form predictions. (T/F)

TRUE — Once psychologists complete observations, they are able to look for regularities, then base predictions upon what they observed.

Which philosopher proposed nativism, the concept that we are born knowing certain things?

Immanuel Kant proposed nativism, which states that we are born knowing certain things.

Kayla’s therapist is asking her about her early childhood memories. Further, the therapist is relating these memories to Kayla’s problematic behaviors. Kayla is participating in therapy influenced by which theorist?

Freud’s psychoanalysis is an insight therapy in which the therapist analyzes memories and mental processes in order to correct problem behaviors.

Which technique would a human factors psychologist use in their day-to-day work?

Mapping is a technique that is employed by human factors psychologists.

Freud’s patients had physical and psychological complaints that could be verified through introspection and medical tests. (T/F)

False. Freud, a trained neurologist, had many patients who complained of physical ailments that he could not physically verify. This led him to believe that these complaints were psychological in nature.

Amanda always makes sure to maintain direct eye contact, shake hands, and repeat an individual’s name upon meeting them. This behavior reflects which concept?

a mind insight

cultural custom

a reflex

systematic introspection

cultural custom. This behavior is considered to be a cultural custom.

Which mental health practitioner attends medical school?

A psychiatrist attends medical school and has the authority to prescribe all medications for patients.

The philosophical concept that knowledge comes from our experiences is known as ______.

Empiricism, a concept introduced through philosophy, proposes that our knowledge comes from our experiences.

Miguel is in a psychology class studying the different senses and the perception of those senses. If Miguel were to take a functionalist approach to this concept, which would he need to do first?

1. understand sensation’s purpose

2. look at culture’s influence on sensation

3. break apart the mechanics of sensation

4. focus on the uniqueness of sensation

understand sensation’s purpose. Functionalism focused on understanding a concept’s function and purpose first before looking at all of its parts.

Which branch of psychology theorizes that our behaviors and cognition have been molded through the centuries?

1. Which branch of psychology theorizes that our behaviors and cognition have been molded through the centuries?

   1. cognitive psychology

   2. evolutionary psychology

   3. forensic psychology

   4. behaviorism

Evolutionary psychology theorizes that human behaviors and thought processes have been molded and passed down through time.

Today, a therapist would take an eclectic approach with a client rather than a behaviorist or humanistic only approach. (T/F)

True. An eclectic view would include using many different schools of thought, including behaviorism and humanism.

Priya is a participant in a psychological study at her school. She is being observed while taking a timed test, first over information that she has studied, and then over information that she is unfamiliar with. The study is focusing on body movements during both tests. Which school of psychology would this type of study most likely fit into?

Humanism

Psychoanalysis

Structuralism

Behaviorism

Behaviorism was concerned only with what was outwardly observable.

You are interested in an early psychologist who abolished many myths about women and studied sex differences. Which psychologist would you most likely read?

Helen Woolley

Ruth Howard

Martha Bernal

Mary Calkins

Helen Woolley is known for her pioneering the study of sex differences.

In what particular way is functionalism differentiated from structuralism?

Functionalism involves understanding purpose before breaking a concept apart. The functionalists proposed that in order to understand a concept, first you must understand its purpose or function, while the structuralists took the approach of breaking concepts apart to understand them.

Clinical psychologists are differentiated from counseling psychologists in that clinical psychologists work with clients with

psychological problems. Clinical psychologists primarily work with individuals who have psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders, while a counseling psychologist primarily works with people who have adjustment issues such as marriage and family counselors.

what is the eclectic approach?

Most psychologists study not only observable behavior but also look at mental processes that may underlie this behavior known as the eclectic approach. (most psychs use this approach)

what is the focus of evolutionary psychologists?

actions and thoughts are controlled by innate mental mechanisms;

• Natural selection: the theory that certain traits get selected over generations in improve “fitness” of a species

• Adaptation: a trait that has been selected for to improve survival 

• Genetic code enables adaptation

Define scientific method

a multistep technique that generates empirical knowledge. (Knowledge derived rom systematic observations of the world)

What are the four primary steps of the scientific method? Give examples

1. Observe (Ex: young boys and girls seem to like playing with different types of toys)

2. Detect regularities (Ex: boys tend to pick more “action-related” toys and girls tend to pick more “relationship-oriented” toys)

3. Generate hypothesis (Ex: if given a choice, young boys will choose to play with a racecar more often than a doll, while the opposite will be true for young girls)

4. Observe (how we test) (Ex: boys choose the racecar 2x as often as the doll, while girls choose the doll 1.5x as often as the racecar)

what is an operational definition?

the specific measurement of an observation (how we define our observations); definition that qualifies (describes) and quantifies (measures) a variable so that the variable can be understood objectively

What are the details of the scientific method?

1. Research question

2. Literature review (what has already been studied in this area. Helps us inform our question)

3. Form hypothesis

4. Conduct study

5. Analyze data

6. Report results

Define theory. What are the elements of a theory?

Theory is a model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events. Elements: based on empirical evidence, produces a wide variety of testable hypotheses, and evolves over time

Define hypothesis. What are the elements that make a hypothesis?

Hypotheses are specific, testable predictions narrower than the theory it is based on. It’s a statement and prediction that can be supported (proven right or wrong). It is measurable. Generating hypotheses allow us to tweak the theory

What are the types of study designs? What do they do?

Descriptive (observe behavior and note what we see. research methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematically); Correlational (predicts behavior. a research method that describes and predicts how variables are naturally related in the world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them or assign causation between them. researchers do not attempt to alter variables); Experimental (understand the cause of behavior. a research method that tests causal hypotheses by manipulating and measuring variables)

What are the types of descriptive study designs? What do they involve?

Observational studies (participant observation — type of descriptive study in which the researcher is involved in the situation; naturalistic observation — a type in which the researcher is a passive observer, separated from the situation and making no attempt to change or alter ongoing behavior); self-reports (survey, self-report questionnaires, and interviews); psychological tests (designed to measure differences among people); case studies (descriptive research method that involves the intensive examination of an unusual person or organization)

What are the pros and cons for each descriptive study?

observational studies (natural observation: pro — behavior is natural and results are generalizable. con: research lacks control and can’t determine cause), self reports (pro: can gather data on many individuals. con — sample bias and people misrepresenting themselves), psychological tests (pro: potential practical uses like assessing the basics of the mind. con — difficulties in test construction and validation), case studies (pro: gives a historical perspective. con — difficulties in generalization based on one case)

What are the types of directions of correlation?

zero correlation (value of 0) — relationship between two variables in which one variable is not predictably related to the other; positive correlation (value of 0 to +1) — a relationship between two variables in which they move in the same direction; negative correlation (value of -1 to 0) — a relationship between two variables in which the two variables move in opposite directions

What is the directionality problem?

problem in correlational studies where researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable (ex: a study finds that sleep duration and academic performance are related. which variable causes the changes in the other is unknown)

What is the third variable problem?

researcher cannot directly manipulate variables, as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest. An unmeasured variable may actually explain the difference

What are the pros for correlational design?

ethical reasons require correlational research designs. (Ex: race and sex cannot be changed for ethical reasoning)

What are the different types of variables in an experiment?

independent variable — variable that gets manipulated in a research study; dependent variable — the variable that gets measured or observed in a research study; control variable — any factor that is kept constant or held steady during a research study or experiment; confounding variable — anything that affects a dependent variable that may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study

what are the types of groups found within an experiment?

experimental group — participants in an experiment who receive the treatment (or the independent variable); control group — the participants in an experiment who receive no intervention or who receive an intervention that is unrelated to the independent variable being investigated

what is sampling and random assignment? why is this problematic? why is this helpful?

Def: Participants are carefully selected and randomly assigned to condition. Pro: participants have an equal chance of being selected. Con: might not be fully representative (ex: selection bias — unintended differences between the participants in different groups; happens when the participants or data chosen for a study do not properly represent the target population, leading to skewed results and false conclusions) Random assignment def: balances out known and unknown facts by chance, increasing the likelihood that groups are equivalent.

explain the difference between random assignment and random sampling

Random sampling — important for generalizability, while random assignment is important to rule out potential confounding variables

what is reactivity bias? How do we prevent this?

the phenomenon that occurs when knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed (AKA Hawthorne effect —people went to an environment and changed the lighting, changed the temp. Found that when people are observing, they produce more work/work harder.) Prevention: naturalistic observation

what is observer bias? How do we prevent this?

systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer’s expectation. can be especially a problem if cultural norms favor inhibiting or expressing certain behaviors. Prevention: double blind studies — the observer and the participants do not know who is part of control group and who is not

What are aspects found within research ethics?

Informed consent — people who volunteer for psucholgical research have the right to know what will happen to them during the course of the study (people under the age of 18 and depenent adults cannot legally provide informed consent. If deception is used, careful debriefing ust take place after the study’s completion); privacy (confidentiality — personal, identifying information about participants absolutely cannot be shared with others; anonymity — the researchers do not colelct personal identifying information)

Who are the IRBs? (Institution review boards)

group of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and protects the physical and emotional well-being of research participants. based on the Belmont principles (respect for persons, beneficence, and justice); consists of administrators, legal advisers, trained scholars, and members of the community

define the types of validity

construct validity — the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure; external validity — the degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations; internal validity — the degree to which effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounds

What are the measures of central tendencies?

mean — average of a set of scores; median — middle point of an ordered set of scores; mode — most frequent score in a set of scores

Define descriptive statistics. Provide examples

provide a summary of the data. Ex: central tendencies (mean, median, mode); measures of variability (variability — in set of numbers, how widely the values are dispersed from each other and the mean. Standard deviation — statistical measure of how far away each value is, on average, from the mean). kurtosis — statistical measure that describes whether the tails of a data distribution are heavier or lighter than the tails of a normal distribution, Mesokurtic: A normal distribution with a kurtosis value of zero (excess kurtosis), showing standard tail behavior. Leptokurtic: A distribution with high kurtosis, meaning it has long, heavy tails and a sharp peak, which indicates a high chance of extreme outliers. Platykurtic: A distribution with low kurtosis, meaning it has short, thin tails and a flat top, which indicates a low chance of extreme outliers.

What inference can you make about participant observation within the classification of the naturalistic observation method?

1. Deception is used by the researcher to become part of the group being observed.

2. Participant observation utilizes surveys as individuals leave the observed group.

3. Generalizability is the key to participant observation rather than the group.

4. There is zero correlation when using participant observation as a methodology.

answ: Deception is used by the researcher to become part of the group being observed.

1. Correct. Participant observation is a technique in which the researcher joins the group being studied using deception.

The strength of a correlation is determined by how close the value is to zero. (T/F)

1. False. The closer the value is to 1, whether that is +1 or -1, the stronger the correlation.

Dr. Apour is running a medical trial. He is recording the effectiveness of a new treatment. There is a control group receiving a placebo and an experimental group receiving the new treatment. To increase the controls for expectancy and bias, Dr. Apour does not know who is in which group. He just measures how the participants are doing with their treatments. This scenario demonstrates which type of study?

Single-blind

naturalistic observation

randomly sampled

Double-blind

Double-blind

Correct. A double-blind study means that neither the participants nor the researcher knows who is placed in the control or experimental groups.

Which type of observation occurs when a researcher goes to the participants’ environment to observe them?

External

Naturalistic

Generalizable

random

1. Naturalistic

   1. Correct. Naturalistic observation is defined as research that records behavior where it naturally occurs.

Shondra is gathering information about a certain animal behavior that occurs in the winter season. In order to understand this, she will write down exactly what occurs without intervening with the behavior in any way. Which type of research is Shondra going to use?

descriptive research

correlational research

experimental research

double-blind study

1. descriptive research

   1. Correct. Descriptive research includes all methods which are designed to just observe and describe behavior.

What is the relationship between the scientific method and patterns in data?

The scientific method uses patterns in data to provide random sampling.

A hypothesis can be formed from recognizing the patterns in the data through statistics.

Patterns in data indicate the reactivity of the participants utilized for the study.

Confounding variables are hidden in the patterns of data in a study.

1. A hypothesis can be formed from recognizing the patterns in the data through statistics.

   1. Correct. Patterns in the data are turned into hypotheses that can then be tested.

What is the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in experimental research?

Variables in experimental research must be shown to have a relationship before they are deemed dependent or independent.

The independent variables are randomly assigned, while the researcher picks the dependent variables.

Independent variables are manipulated to see if there is an effect on the dependent variables, which is then measured.

The dependent variable needs to have at least two conditions, but the independent variable can only have one.

1. Independent variables are manipulated to see if there is an effect on the dependent variables, which is then measured.

   1. Correct. A researcher will manipulate the independent variable to see if there is an effect on the measured dependent variable.

You are measuring what happens to memory by manipulating time of exposure to a list. Which type of variable are you measuring?

Dependent

Independent

Mode

median

1. Dependent

   1. Correct. The dependent variable is measured to see if the independent variable had an effect.

What motive is there to use animals instead of human beings for research?

Researcher bias does not occur in experiments that use animals.

Confounding variables are always found when using animals.

An animal’s environment can be completely controlled.

The absolute value can be determined with animal experiments.

1. An animal’s environment can be completely controlled.

   1. Correct. Researchers can completely control an animal’s environment, whereas they cannot with human beings.

Oliver has just calculated his correlation coefficient. The relationship between his variables is +.72. What does this demonstrate?

weak positive correlation

strong positive correlation

strong negative correlation

weak negative correlation

1. strong positive correlation

   1. Correct. A strong positive correlation is close to +1

Which concept may suffer in a highly controlled experiment?

Correlation

standard deviation

Confidentiality

Generalizability

Generalizability allows for the results of experimental research to be applied to real-world situations, which may be impaired in a highly controlled, many times artificial, experimental environment.

For research, you intended to observe children playing at recess; however, they keep looking at you as you observe them. This illustrates reactivity. (T/F)

1. False

   1. Correct. Reactivity is defined as behavior changing in a subject due to being observed.

Dr. Gardner has made sure to control for any variables that could possibly change his independent variable. Everything is exactly the same between his experimental group and control group except for the independent variable. Which concept does Dr. Gardner’s experiment demonstrate?

internal validity

Reactivity

external validity

standard deviation

1. internal validity

   1. Correct. When confounding variables are controlled for, an experiment can be said to have internal validity.

Bo-bae’s data has revealed that her variables show no relationship with one another. What could she also say about the variables in her data?

They are uncorrelated.

They represent +1.

They reflect the average.

They are negatively correlated.

1. They are uncorrelated.

   1. Correct. A zero correlation between variables would classify them as uncorrelated.

Which concept is used to graphically illustrate a correlation?

survey

absolute value

Scatterplot

median

1. Scatterplot

   1. Correct. A scatterplot allows researchers to see correlation graphically.

what is neuroscience?

studies the connection between brain and behavior

what are the types of neurons? What do they do?

• Sensory neurons – bring info from the world INTO the body and to the brain for processing

• Interneurons – internal neurons that pass communications between sensory and motor neurons

  • reflexes

• Motor neurons – carry messages away from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to muscles and glands

  • Translating brain signals into action

what are the neuron structures?

• Soma (cell body) – contains DNA

• Dendrites – extensions from soma that receive information

• Axon – extends from cell body, carries electrical potential

• Terminal buttons – emits a chemical message that reaches adjacent neurons

describe the flow of information in neurons

• Dendrites → soma → axon → terminal buttons

what is the synapse?

• small gap between cells; typically between the terminal buttons buttons and the dendrite 

  • Chemicals released by terminal buttons flow into this gap

describe synaptic transmission

• Action potential reaches end of axon 

• Vesicles transport NTs to membrane and release them into the synapse

• NT interact with the postsynaptic receptors

• May cause action potential in the postsynaptic neuron

• NT deactivation starts

what is resisting potential?

• tiny electrical charge that exists between the inside and outside of cell, created by the presence of electrically charged atoms and molecules, ions, that are distributed unevenly between the inside and outside of the cell

what are the main ions in neural transmission

• Positively charged sodium and potassium ions

• Negatively charge chloride ions

what is action potential?

own message

occurs when membrane potential rapidly shifts in response to an incoming signal from an adjacent neuron

• action potentials are fixed in strength 

• Action potentials are “all or nothing” in nature

  • Strength does not matter

• Action speed varies by size and shape of axon

What are the two types of messages passed from one neuron to the next?

• Excitatory messages – on channels in the cell membrane open, and sodium ions flow into the cell

  • depolarization: Moves the electrical potential of the cell from negative toward zero

• Inhibitory messages – cell membrane pushes more positive ions out of the cell or allows negative ions to move in

  • Hyperpolarization: electrical potential becomes more negative

what are glial cells? give an example

supportive and protective for neurons (protect, insulate, and nourish neurons). Myelin cells – type of glial cell that wraps around the neuron axon to increase the speed of action potential (More common on longer neurons)

what are neurotransmitters?

molecules are released from the axon terminal into the synapse when the action potential arrives at the axon terminal region.

explain excitatory and inhibitory effects in neurotransmitters

• Excitatory – speeds things up

• Inhibitory – slows things down

what are psychoactive drugs? what are the types?

• Affect the nervous system to alter mood, emotion, and thought

• Agonists: drugs that mimic or enhance neurotransmitters

  • Amphetamine – stimulates release of dopamine

  • Nicotine – acts like acetylcholine

  • Alcohol is an agonist for GABA

• Antagonists – drugs that block the action of neurotransmitters

  • Antipsychotic meds block dopamine receptors

how can we study the brain?

• Brain damage (observation)

  • Case studies

  • Brain lesion studies (animals typically)

    • Cut out a portion of the brain

  • Disadvantages: no/limited control in studies

  • Ex: Phineas Gage

    • Rod go through brain and personality changed

• Activating the Brain

  • Chemical injection or electrode placement in brain (animals)

  • Ex. seizure reduction surgery in humans

  • Ex: Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

    • Can increase or decrease neural activity in small regions

    • Also used to treat depression, OCD, anxiety

• Brain Recordings

  • Electroencephalograph (EEG)

    • Maps where activity is happening

    • Like in sleep studies

    • Electrodes detect neural activity

    • “Brain waves”

    • Measures psychological states (concentration, meditation, anxiety, or startle resopnses, sleep cycles)

  • Various imaging techniques (PET, MRI)

    • See which parts of the brain are being used

    • PET – ingest a chemical, and when the brain uses it, the chemical will go to that part of the brain and will show up on the scan

      • More diagnostic

      • More activity - more radioactive substances

      • Patient ingests harmless radioactive substance, which is absorbed into cells of active brain regions

    • MRI – see extent of the damage; research purposees

      • High resolution image

      • Diagnostic

      • Research utility

      • No radiation

        • Uses magnetic fields

      • fMRI

        • 3D structural imaging of the brain and mapping of oxygenated blood

        • More oxygenated blood flow = more activation

  • CT scan

    • Used to detect structural changes or damage

    • Low resolution

    • Diagnosis 

      • Bleeding in the brain (hematoma, stroke, aneurysm)

      • tumors

  • Allows us to study human brain in real time

what are the types of structural brain imaging methods?

CT scan, MRI

what are the functional imaging methods?

EEG, PET scan, fMRI

what are types of altering brain activity (treatment)

TMS

name the structures of the brain (3)

hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain