Exam 2 Social Psychology

Vocabulary flashcards covering human self-concept, introspection, social comparisons, attitude formation, routes of persuasion, and cognitive dissonance principles.

Self-Concept

How individuals think about and perceive themselves, consisting of affect (emotions), behaviors (knowledge of actions), and cognitions (beliefs about the self).

Introspection difficulties

Causal Theories, Reason-Generated Attitude Change

Behavioral intentions

specific attitudes about behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.

Evaluative Priming vs Subliminal Priming

Evaluative priming is an implicit measurement tool that assesses existing attitude valence and accessibility by measuring reaction times to positive or negative words following an attitude object, whereas subliminal priming is an experimental procedure that presents stimuli below conscious awareness (e.g., flashed for 21 ms) to test whether unconscious cues can alter subsequent evaluations or behaviors.

Valence

Refers to the intrinsic attractiveness or averseness of an event, object, or situation. It indicates the emotional value associated with stimuli.

Real-World Example of Self-Concept

Describing oneself as an empathetic, indecisive student who loves music and values environmental sustainability.

Age of Self-Concept Emergence

The earliest foundations (visual self-recognition) develop around $18\text{--}24\,months$ of age in human infants, as well as in select species like primates, dolphins, and elephants.

Developmental Trajectory of Self-Concept

Self-concept transitions from concrete observable characteristics in childhood (e.g., eye color, height) to psychological states, social roles, and moral beliefs in adolescence and adulthood.

Independent Self-Concept

A cultural self-concept (common in Western societies) that defines the self through one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and personal agency rather than relationships. Associated with the analytical thinking style.

Real-World Example of Independent Self-Concept

A student prioritizing individual academic achievement on an exam over group study goals.

Interdependent Self-Concept

A cultural self-concept (common in East Asian and other eastern cultures) that defines the self through relational ties, group membership, and social harmony. Associated with holistic thinking style.

Real-World Example of Interdependent Self-Concept

Avoiding a vocal argument with family members during a holiday gathering to preserve overall group harmony.

Introspection

The process whereby people consciously look inward to examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives. People are bad at this because feelings/motives are often outside of conscious awareness. Its how we develop self concept.

Real-World Example of Introspection

Pausing during a heated discussion to analyze why a friend's comment made you feel unexpectedly defensive.

Nisbett & Wilson (1977) Distraction Study Results

Participants falsely claimed background noise ruined film enjoyment despite identical liking ratings across conditions, revealing that introspection often relies on flawed causal theories.

Causal Theories

Culturally derived theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviors that can lead to incorrect inferences during introspection

Real-World Example of Causal Theories

believing that you are grumpy because it is Monday or because you didn't have your morning coffee. In reality, your bad mood might actually stem from poor sleep, but your culture has taught you to automatically blame Mondays or a lack of caffeine for your irritability.

Reason-Generated Attitude Change

Attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one's attitudes, causing individuals to adjust their beliefs toward easily verbalized factors.

Real-World Example of Reason-Generated Attitude Change

Analyzing why you love a romantic partner, focusing only on easy-to-explain traits, and temporarily feeling less affectionate toward them.

Self-Awareness Theory

The theory that focusing attention on oneself prompts individuals to evaluate and compare their current behavior against internal standards and values.

Real-World Example of Self-Awareness Theory

Seeing your reflection in a classroom window while taking an exam, which prompts you to adhere strictly to your moral standards against cheating.

Self-Perception Theory

The theory that when internal attitudes or feelings are ambiguous, people infer them by observing their own freely chosen behavior and the situation in which it occurs.

Wells & Petty (1980) Head Movement Study Results

Participants who nod up and down while listening to editorials agree significantly more than those shaking side to side, supporting Self-Perception Theory.

Intrinsic Motivation

The desire to engage in an activity out of personal enjoyment, fascination, or interest rather than external rewards or pressures.

Real-World Example of Intrinsic Motivation

Reading a non-fiction book purely out of personal curiosity about history.

Extrinsic Motivation

The desire to engage in an activity driven by external incentives, rewards, grades, or social pressures.

Real-World Example of Extrinsic Motivation

Studying for an exam solely to earn a high grade or avoid getting grounded.

Over-Justification Effect

The tendency for people to view their behavior as driven by external rewards, undercutting their prior intrinsic motivation once rewards are introduced.

Real-World Example of Over-Justification Effect

A passionate young painter losing interest in creating art after receiving cash payments for every finished drawing.

Primary Condition for Over-Justification

External rewards undermine intrinsic motivation primarily when initial intrinsic interest in the task was high rather than low.

Task-Contingent Rewards

Rewards given for performing a task regardless of how well or poorly the task is executed.

Real-World Example of Task-Contingent Rewards

Giving every student a prize simply for turning in a reading assignment regardless of comprehension.

Performance-Contingent Rewards

Rewards granted based directly on how well an individual performs a given task.

Real-World Example of Performance-Contingent Rewards

Awarding a cash bonus to a salesperson based on how many units they successfully sell.

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

The idea that emotional experience stems from a two-step self-perception process: first experiencing physiological arousal, and then attributing that arousal to an appropriate cause.

Misattribution of Arousal

The process whereby individuals draw mistaken conclusions regarding the true physiological or emotional cause of their bodily arousal.

Real-World Example of Misattribution of Arousal

Mistaking a racing heart caused by drinking $400\,mg$ of caffeine for test anxiety.

Dutton & Aron (1974) Bridge Studies Results

Men crossing a terrifying high bridge were far more likely ($50\%$) to call an attractive female interviewer than men on a safe bridge ($13\%$), supporting Misattribution of Arousal.

Social Comparison Theory

Festinger's theory that individuals determine their own social worth, abilities, and opinions by comparing themselves to others when objective standards are missing.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to individuals who perform better or possess superior traits, typically motivated by a desire to reach higher advanced goals.

Real-World Example of Upward Social Comparison

A novice runner comparing race times to a marathon champion to stay motivated.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to individuals who are worse off regarding a specific trait or ability, motivated by self-esteem protection.

Real-World Example of Downward Social Comparison

Feeling better about receiving a C grade on a test after noticing a classmate received an F.

Social Comparison Choice Drivers

People compare to similar others when motivated to be accurate, engage in downward comparison when motivated to feel good, and engage in upward comparison when motivated to achieve future goals.

Impression Management

The deliberate attempt by individuals to structure interactions so that others perceive them in a specific desired light.

Real-World Example of Impression Management

Dressing professionally and maintaining strong eye contact during a job interview.

Common Impression Management Tactics

Strategies include conformity, intimidation, self-promotion, modesty, ingratiation, and self-handicapping.

Ingratiation

An impression management technique involving flattery, compliments, or agreement to render oneself more likable to another person, especially a superior.

Real-World Example of Ingratiation

Excessively praising a supervisor's presentation ideas in a department meeting to gain favor.

Self-Handicapping

Creating obstacles or excuses for oneself in advance of a task so that potential failure can be blamed on external factors rather than lack of ability.

Behavioral Self-Handicapping

Actively creating obstacle behaviors that decrease the likelihood of success to shield self-esteem.

Real-World Example of Behavioral Self-Handicapping

Staying out partying until $3\,AM$ the night before a crucial final exam.

Reported Self-Handicapping

Devising pre-made verbal excuses prior to a performance task.

Real-World Example of Reported Self-Handicapping

Announcing to classmates before giving a speech that you have a severe headache and did not sleep.

Stanford Marshmallow Experiment Results

Children who delayed gratification ($15\,minutes$ for $2$ marshmallows) achieved higher SAT scores, lower BMI, and better adult stress management, supporting the lifelong benefits of self-control.

Ego-Depletion Model

The perspective that self-control functions as a limited cognitive resource that fatigues with use but can be built up over time.

Real-World Example of Ego-Depletion

Eating unhealthy food late at night after resisting temptations and emotional stress all day at work.

Belief-Dependent View of Willpower

Research showing that people who believe willpower is an unlimited resource persist longer on difficult tasks without experiencing ego-depletion.

Implementation Intentions

Specific 'if-then' plans detailing the exact where, when, and how of pursuing a goal and avoiding temptations.

Real-World Example of Implementation Intentions

Deciding 'If my friends text me to go out at $8\,PM$, then I will tell them I can go only after finishing Chapter 5'.

Attitude

An object-valence association combined with an evaluation directed toward a target object (living thing, place, object, or idea).

Real-World Example of Attitude

Having a strongly positive evaluation of your favorite college sports team.

Explicit Attitudes

Attitudes that are consciously maintained, controlled, and directly self-reported by the individual.

Real-World Example of Explicit Attitudes

Stating directly on a survey that you strongly support environmental conservation.

Implicit Attitudes

Involuntary, uncontrollable, and automatic evaluations that operate outside of conscious awareness.

Real-World Example of Implicit Attitudes

a hiring manager who consciously values diversity and believes men and women are equally capable leaders, yet unconsciously feels more hesitant to promote a qualified mother to an executive role because of an automatic mental link between women and domestic care

Affectively Based Attitude

An attitude derived predominantly from emotional reactions, values, and feelings rather than objective factual analysis.

Real-World Example of Affectively Based Attitude

Loving a specific brand of car simply because it reminds you of fun childhood family trips.

Cognitively Based Attitude

An attitude built primarily upon an objective appraisal of the properties, pros, and cons of an attitude object.

Real-World Example of Cognitively Based Attitude

Choosing a commuter vehicle based entirely on safety ratings, fuel efficiency, and price.

Behaviorally Based Attitude

An attitude formed by observing one's own past behaviors toward an attitude object under conditions of ambiguity.

Real-World Example of Behaviorally Based Attitude

Realizing you drink energy drinks daily and concluding that you must like them.

Operant Conditioning of Attitudes

Attitude formation where freely chosen behaviors are modified using positive reinforcement or punishment.

Real-World Example of Operant Conditioning of Attitudes

Developing a positive attitude toward playing soccer after receiving praise and trophies from coaches.

Classical Conditioning of Attitudes

Attitude formation via learning to like or dislike something because it is paired with something you already have strong feelings about.

Real-World Example of Classical Conditioning of Attitudes

Liking a commercial brand because its advertisements repeatedly show warm, happy family moments.

Social Learning of Attitudes

Attitude acquisition occurring through observation of social models, including parents, teachers, and peers.

Real-World Example of Social Learning of Attitudes

Adopting political or religious views by observing and listening to family discussions at home.

Moral Convictions

Strong object-morality associations that people believe to be universal, objective truths, frequently accompanied by social intolerance/avoidance towards people with divergent viewpoints.

Real-World Example of Moral Convictions

Viewing human rights violations as absolute objective wrongs rather than matters of personal opinion.

Drawbacks of Direct Attitude Self-Reports

Explicit attitude measures can be easily distorted by question wording, participant lying/social desirability, and conformity pressures.

Attitude Accessibility

The strength of the mental association between an attitude object and its evaluation, indicated by speed of recall upon encountering the object.

Evaluative Priming

An implicit measurement strategy that flashes prime images of attitude objects prior to target words, determining underlying valence based on reaction times.

Indirect Implicit Measurement Tools

Assessment techniques including Mouse Tracking, Approach-Avoid Tasks (joystick push/pull), Facial EMG, and Posturography (center of pressure shifts).

March et al. (2022) Subliminal Priming Study Results

Flashing images for $21\,ms$ made threatening stimuli rated significantly more negative, but positive/neutral images were unaffected, showing subliminal priming is context-limited.

Predicting Spontaneous vs. Deliberative Behaviors

Spontaneous behaviors are predicted by attitude accessibility and direct experience; deliberative behaviors are predicted by conscious behavioral intentions.

Theory of Planned Behavior

Ajzen's model stating that deliberate behavior is best predicted by behavioral intentions

Real-World Example of Theory of Planned Behavior

Deciding to recycle because you have a positive attitude toward it, believe your peers expect it, and find recycling bins easily accessible.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Petty & Cacioppo's persuasion model describing central (argument-focused) and peripheral (cue-focused) routes to attitude modification based on motivation and opportunity.

Central Route Persuasion

Persuasion occurring when audience members are motivated and able to carefully analyze logical argument strength, producing strong, lasting attitude change.

Real-World Example of Central Route Persuasion

A shopper reading detailed lab test results and processor specifications before buying a new computer

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Persuasion occurring when low motivation or cognitive opportunity leads individuals to rely on superficial communicator cues, producing weak, temporary attitude change.

Real-World Example of Peripheral Route Persuasion

Buying a beverage because a famous athlete endorses it in a commercial.

Petty et al. (1981) Comprehensive Exam Study Results

Students processed via the central route when policy affected them next year (high self-relevance), but relied on peripheral speaker prestige when affected in $10\,years$.

Self-Relevance

The personal importance of an issue to an individual's well-being or future choices, serving as the primary situational driver of central route processing.

Need for Cognition

A personality trait reflecting an individual's natural inclination to engage in and enjoy cognitively effortful activities.

Attitude Inoculation

Building resistance to persuasive attempts by exposing individuals to small, weak counterarguments beforehand so they can practice counter-arguing.

McGuire (1964) Tooth-Brushing Inoculation Study Results

Exposing participants to brief, weak counterarguments against tooth-brushing made them significantly more resistant to strong persuasive attacks $2\,days$ later. Established and validated inoculation theory.

Fear-Arousing Communication

A persuasive message designed to change attitudes by inducing fear, effective only when fear levels are moderate and a clear behavioral remedy is offered.

Fear-Arousing Smoking Study Results

Smokers shown a scary lung film AND given a self-help booklet reduced daily smoking from $60$ to $20$ cigarettes, far outperforming film-only or booklet-only groups.