Exams 1 & 2

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering fundamental anatomy, physiology, cellular biology, acid-base homeostasis, the nervous system, integumentary system, and skeletal system.

Physiological pH control mechanism

A secondary control system that halts and reverses harmful pH shifts in the body when chemical pH control mechanisms are unable to stabilize the pH.

Base

A substance that has a pH greater than $7$ and contains more $OH^-$ ions than $H^+$ ions in solution.

Acid

A substance that has a pH less than $7$ and contains a higher concentration of $H^+$ ions relative to $OH^-$ ions.

Acidosis

An abnormal clinical condition that occurs when the blood pH drops below the normal reference range of $7.35$.

Alkalosis

An abnormal physiological condition that occurs when the blood pH rises above the normal reference range of $7.45$.

Respiratory acidosis

An acid-base imbalance caused by hypoventilation or inadequate breathing where $CO_2$ accumulates and forms carbonic acid, producing an arterial blood gas pattern of pH below $7.35$ and $PaCO_2$ above $45\text{ mm Hg}$.

Respiratory alkalosis

An acid-base disturbance resulting from hyperventilation and excessive exhalation of $CO_2$, characterized by a blood pH above $7.45$ and a $PaCO_2$ below $35\text{ mm Hg}$.

Metabolic alkalosis

An acid-base imbalance characterized by an arterial pH above $7.45$ and $HCO_3^-$ above $26\text{ mEq/L}$, which can occur following severe vomiting due to the massive indirect loss of chloride from gastric hydrochloric acid.

Anatomical position

The standard reference standing posture used for all directional terms in human anatomy.

Mediastinum

A central tissue compartment in the thorax that constitutes part of the ventral body cavity.

Proximal

A directional term indicating a position closer to the trunk or point of attachment; for example, the knee is proximal to the ankle.

Superficial

A directional term meaning located closer to the surface of the body; for example, the skin is superficial to muscle tissue.

Negative feedback loop

A primary regulatory mechanism that opposes changes to maintain dynamic physiological equilibrium, such as maintaining proper body temperature.

Osmosis

The specialized diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane.

Anatomy

The branch of science studying body structure, derived etymologically from two word parts meaning 'cutting apart.'

Physiology

The biological study of how the human body and its component structures function.

Phagocytosis

An active transport process in which a cell membrane engulfs and internalizes solid materials into the cell.

Nucleus

The membrane-bound organelle that contains genetic instructions and controls most activities of the eukaryotic cell.

Diaphragm

The muscular partition separating the thoracic cavity superiorly from the abdominal cavity inferiorly.

Mitochondria

The cellular organelles known as the 'power plants' of the cell because they generate ATP.

Cilia

Small, hairlike projections on the exposed outer surface of certain cells that function in moving substances.

Rule of Nines

A clinical assessment method that divides the body into $11$ regions, each covering approximately $9\%$ of total body surface area (plus $1\%$ for the perineum), used to estimate burn severity and guide fluid replacement.

Second-degree burn

A partial-thickness burn damaging both the epidermis and the upper layers of the dermis, typically characterized by blister formation, redness, a moist shiny surface, swelling, and severe pain.

Eccrine glands

Cutaneous sweat glands that produce a thin, watery secretion responsible for evaporative cooling.

Axon

The elongated neuronal process that carries nerve impulses away from the neuron cell body.

Dendrite

The branched extension of a neuron that conducts incoming impulses toward the cell body.

Motor neurons (efferent neurons)

Nerve cells that transmit electrical impulses away from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to peripheral effector organs.

Synovial joints

Freely movable articulations classified into six types based on movement: ball-and-socket, hinge, pivot, saddle, condyloid, and gliding (plane).

Diaphysis

The elongated, hollow tubular shaft forming the main portion of a long bone.

Medullary cavity

The hollow center located within the diaphysis of a long bone that houses yellow bone marrow in adults.

Patella

The sesamoid bone commonly known as the kneecap.

Phalanges

The bones forming the structural skeletal framework of both the fingers and the toes.

Epidermis

The outermost, nonvascularized layer of the skin composed of epithelial tissue.

Subcutaneous layer

The hypodermal tissue layer underlying the dermis that stores fat, functions as a shock absorber, and helps regulate body temperature.

Alveoli

Tiny, thin-walled microscopic air sacs in the lungs where respiratory gas exchange occurs.

Cuticle

The narrow fold of skin that covers and conceals the root of the nail located inside a groove.

Cardiovascular system

The organ system whose primary function is the continuous circulation and transportation of materials throughout the body.

Muscular system

The body system composed of contractible tissue that functions to provide movement, maintain body posture, and generate heat.

Central and peripheral nervous systems

The two principal anatomic divisions that constitute the entire nervous system.