AP Psychology

Cognitive biases

Shortcuts our brains take to make processing information easier and quicker, but they often lead us to incorrect conclusions or irrational decisions

Hindsight bias

We believe we predicted it beforehand

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms our preexisting beliefs or opinions

Overconfidence bias

Overestimating the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments

Tendency to perceive order in random events

A cognitive bias where people see meaningful patterns, trends, or connections in completely random or unrelated data

Pillars of the scientific attitude

Curiosity, Humility, Skepticism

Case study

In-depth investigation of an individual or small group who may have a highly unusual trait

Naturalistic observation

Non-experimental technique observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating the situation

Survey (a type of correlation studies)

Non-experimental technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behavior

Meta-analysis

Statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach a conclusion

Hypothesis

A testable prediction

Falsifiable

An idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven through further observation or experimentation

Operational

Carefully worded statement of exact procedures

Precise

Is it clear and exact?

Observable

Can I see it happen?

Quantifiable

Can I assign a number or score to it?

Replicable

Can I others repeat it with the same exact procedures?

Sample

The specific group of participants selected from a larger population to be studied in a research project

Representative sample (good)

A small group of participants that accurately reflects the characteristics of the entire population you are trying to study.

Random sample (good)

Fairly representing a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Sampling bias (bad)

a mistake where your group does not represent the whole population, making it impossible to generalize the result.

Convenience sampling (bad)

collecting research from a group readily available

Variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

Correlation

A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other

Positive correlation

Variables move in the same direction

Negative correlation

Variables move in opposite directions

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variablesr

Directionality problem

You don’t know if X causes Y, or Y causes X.

Third-variable problem

A hidden variable causes both X and Y

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship between where none (or stronger than actual) exists

Regression Towards the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Outliers

A data point that is unusually far away from all other numbers in a group

Experiment

Manipulate one or more factors to observe the effect of some behavior or mental process; The only research method that can prove causation

Independent variable

What the experimenter changes/hands out

Dependent Variable

What is measured at the end, the outcome of the data

Placebo

A fake pill or treatment with zero active ingredients

Placebo effect

Behavioral changes caused entirely by expectation

Random assignment

Sorting participants into groups by pure chance, thereby minimizing preexisting differences between different groups

Random sampling

How you draw a fair mix of people out of the real world into your testing room (used for surveys to keep things generalized)

Random assignment

How you sort those people in Group A or Group B after they are already inside your room (used for experiments to control bias)

Confounding Variables

A factor other than the one being studied that might influence a study’s results

Experimenter bias

Researchers unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Single-blind

Only the participants don’t know which group they are in

Double-blind

Neither the participant nor the researchers know

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results

Simplified Conditions

to create a controlled environment to test general psychological principles

The institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research proposals before any study can begin

Human IRB

Ensures human rights, safety and dignity are protected

Non-Human IRB (IACUC)

Ensures animal subjects are treated humanely and comfortably

Confidentiality

Participants' identity and personal data must be kept completely secret/anonymous

Minimal description

Misleading participants is allowed only if necessary for the study, and it cannot cause distress

Confederates

Actors hired by the experimenter who pretend to be real participants

Debriefing

A mandatory post-experiment talk where researchers explain the true purpose of the study and reveal any deception used

Framing

How a question or situation is presented to participants, which can sway their responses or behavior

Mean

The arithmetic average of all scores. (Vulnerable to extreme outliers)

Median

The exact middle score (50th percentile). Best for skewed distributions

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a dataset

Percentile Rank

Indicates the percentage of scores that fall at or below a specific score

Range

highest - lowest

Standard Deviation

Measuring how much scores deviate around the mean

Positive/Right skew

Extreme high outliers pull the tail to the right (Mean>Median)

Negative/Left skew

Extreme low outliers pull the tail to the left (Mean < Median)

Bimodal Shape

Distribution features two distinct peaks (modes)

Statistical Significance (P-value)

Determines if an observed difference is real of just random chance

Effect size

Measures the actual strength/magnitude of a treatment effect

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Genetic Predisposition

An increased vulnerability or likelihood of developing a specific behavioral trait or condition based on your DNA

Predisposition/Destiny

Having a genetic risk does not guarantee a trait will appear; the environment determines if it gets activated

Male Mating Tendencies

Evolutionary, psychologists note men generally seek youthful biological markers (smooth skin, hip-to-waist ration), signaling health and fertility

Female Mating Tendencies

Women generally seeks resources, social status, and commitment signaling long-term parental investment and security

Parental Investment Theory

Women invest higher biological cost (gestation, nursing) per child, favoring selective, resource-oriented mate choices

Social role theory

Women were/are not always allowed to earn their own money so had to seek a partner with financial means, not because they necessarily wanted to

The “Just-so Story” Fallacy

Untestable - we can’t observe our ancestors from thousands of years ago

Eugenics

A late 19th-century movement aimed at “improving” human genetics through selective breeding and forced sterilization

The nervous system

An intricate communication network divided into two primary subsystems that work together seamlessly

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Makes decisions; The main processing center (brain + spinal cord)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Transmits incoming sensory input and outgoing motor commands; The network of nerves connecting the CNS to muscles, sensory organs, and glands

The Brain

Receives sensory information, interprets data, makes complex decisions, and forms conscious thought & emotions

The Spinal Cord (CNS)

The superhighway of nerve fibers transmitting signals to/from the brain. Also handles spinal reflexes

Tracts (CNS)

Pass messages internally between different parts of the brain and spinal cord so you can think and process information

Nerves (PNS)

Pass messages back and forth between the signal cord and the rest of your body so you can feel and move

Autonomic nervous system (ANS, PNS)

(involuntary) Protects you automatically

Somatic Nervous System (PNS)

Responsible for voluntary control and conscious perception

Sensory input (Afferent)

Carries information from external sensory (touch, pain, temperature, sight, sound) into the nervous system.

Motor output (Efferent)

Delivers voluntary movement commands to control skeletal muscles (e.g, kicking a ball, waving a hand, or pulling away from a hot surface)

Sensory

(afferent) neurons pick up information from sensory receptors in your body and send it toward the spinal cord and brain

Motor

(efferent) neurons carry movement or action commands away from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands