Exam 7-12

What is public opinion?

The views and beliefs that people have about politics, government, and important issues.

What is random sampling?

Choosing people randomly so everyone has an equal chance of being selected for a poll.

What is sampling error?

The difference between a poll's results and the actual opinions of the larger population. It is also called the margin of error.

How can the wording of a poll question affect the results?

The way a question is worded can influence how people answer it.

What is political socialization?

The process of developing political beliefs and opinions throughout your life.

What are five things that influence political opinions?

Family, Religion, School, Friends and peer groups, & Media

What is political ideology?

A set of beliefs about what the government should do.

What is the difference between liberal and conservative ideologies?

• Liberal: Generally supports a more active role for government.

• Conservative: Generally supports a more limited role for government.

How does public opinion affect public policy?

When public opinion changes, government policies often change too.

Why doesn't the government always follow what most people want?

Politicians may respond more to organized interest groups and wealthy individuals than to a large group of people who do not take action.

What is political participation?

Any activity people do to express political opinions or influence government, such as voting, protesting, or contacting representatives.

What is VAP?

Voting-Age Population. It includes everyone living in the U.S. who is 18 or older, even people who are not legally allowed to vote.

What is VEP?

Voting-Eligible Population. It includes people who are legally allowed to vote.

What is the difference between VAP and VEP?

VAP includes all residents age 18 and older, while VEP includes only those legally eligible to vote.

Why might eligible citizens not register to vote?

They may not know how to register, miss deadlines, move frequently, or feel like their vote does not matter.

Why might registered voters choose not to vote?

They may be too busy, dislike the candidates, not care about the issues, or feel disconnected from politics.

What is the Motor-Voter Law (NVRA)?

A 1993 law that allows people to register to vote when applying for a driver's license.

What is Automatic Voter Registration (AVR)?

A system that automatically registers eligible citizens unless they choose to opt out.

What does GOTV stand for, and what does it do?

Get Out the Vote. These campaigns encourage registered voters to actually vote through reminders and community outreach.

What is the 15th Amendment?

(1870): Prohibited denying the right to vote because of race.

What is the 19th Amendment?

(1920): Guaranteed women the right to vote.

What is the 24th Amendment?

(1964): Banned poll taxes in federal elections.

What is the 26th Amendment?

(1971): Lowered the voting age to 18.

What were literacy tests and poll taxes used for?

They were used to prevent Black Americans and other people from voting. Literacy tests required reading ability, while poll taxes required payment.

What is the difference between Smith v. Allwright and Shelby County v. Holder?

• Smith v. Allwright (1944): The Supreme Court ruled that political parties could not exclude Black Americans from primary elections.

• Shelby County v. Holder (2013): The Court weakened part of the Voting Rights Act that required certain states to get federal approval before changing voting laws.

Why is voter turnout usually higher in presidential elections than in midterm elections?

Presidential elections usually receive more attention, making people more interested in voting.

What are other ways people participate in politics besides voting?

Protesting, contacting government officials, donating to campaigns, volunteering, and organizing in their communities.

What is a political party?

A group that works to elect candidates to government offices under its party name.

What are the three main things political parties do?

They help elect candidates, give voters a party label to identify with, and organize government leaders.

Why are American political parties generally weaker than parties in many other democracies?

American voters usually choose party candidates through primary elections, and power is divided between the national and state governments and between the legislative and executive branches.

What is a primary election?

An election where voters choose which candidate will represent a political party in the general election.

What is the difference between an open and a closed primary?

• Open primary: Voters can participate regardless of their party membership.

• Closed primary: Only registered members of that party can vote in its primary.

What is a national party convention?

A meeting held every four years where party delegates nominate the party's presidential candidate.

What is partisan identification?

A person's connection to or identification with a political party, such as the Democratic or Republican Party.

What influences which political party someone identifies with?

Their parents' political beliefs and the political environment they experience while growing up.

What is a political realignment?

A major change in which groups of voters support political parties, often changing which party is more powerful.

What is a two-party system?

A political system in which two major parties dominate elections.

What are three reasons the U.S. has a two-party system?

• Winner-take-all elections.

• State election laws.

• The two major parties adjust their platforms to appeal to voters.

What is the difference between national and local political parties?

National parties focus on national elections and organizing party activities across the country.

State and local parties focus on elections and political issues in their own areas.

What is a caucus?

A meeting of party members where they choose delegates to support candidates.

What is momentum in a presidential primary?

When a candidate gains more support after winning an election, especially an unexpected victory.

What are two factors that influence a candidate's success in primaries?

The length of the primary process and the candidate's name recognition.

What is the Electoral College?

The system that officially selects the president through electoral votes rather than directly through the national popular vote.

How can a candidate win the popular vote but lose the presidential election?

A candidate can receive more votes nationwide but lose the Electoral College.

What are swing states, also called battleground states?

States where either major-party candidate has a realistic chance of winning.

How do voters learn about candidates?

Through television and radio ads, social media, debates, campaign events, and party conventions.

What is incumbency advantage?

When someone already holding office has an advantage over the person challenging them in an election.

Why do members of Congress often have an incumbency advantage?

They are already known to voters, can highlight their accomplishments, can send mail to constituents through the franking privilege, and often have fundraising advantages.

What is the difference between surge and decline and coattails?

• Surge and decline: The president's party usually does better in presidential election years than in midterm elections.

• Coattails: Candidates from the president's party may win more votes because the president is at the top of the ticket.

What did the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974 do?

It established limits on campaign contributions and expenditures and created the Federal Election Commission (FEC).

What did the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 do?

It banned soft money and raised limits on individual campaign contributions.

What was the importance of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)?

The case expanded the ability of corporations and unions to spend money independently to support or oppose political candidates.

What are Super PACs?

Political organizations that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money on independent political expenditures, but cannot legally coordinate those expenditures with candidates' campaigns.

What is an interest group?

An organization of people who share a common goal and try to influence government policies.

What is a lobbyist?

A person who tries to influence lawmakers or other government officials on behalf of an interest group.

What caused interest groups to increase in the United States?

Economic development, government policies, social movements, and the growing role of government.

What is the difference between institutional interests and membership interests?

• Institutional interests: Organizations that represent institutions, businesses, or other established organizations.

• Membership interests: Organizations that represent the shared interests of their members.

Why do people join interest groups?

People may join for social connections, personal benefits, or because they believe in the group's goals.

What are the three main reasons people join organizations?

• Solidary benefits: Social connections and friendships.

• Material benefits: Tangible rewards or personal benefits.

• Purposive benefits: The satisfaction of supporting a cause or goal.

What is an ideological interest group?

An organization that attracts members who share similar political beliefs or principles.

What is a public-interest lobby?

An organization that supports issues it believes will benefit the public as a whole.

How are interest groups connected to social movements?

Social movements often inspire the creation of interest groups that continue working toward the movement's goals.

What is lobbying?

Trying to influence government decisions by providing information, research, ratings, or fact sheets to policymakers.

What is grassroots lobbying?

Encouraging ordinary people to contact government officials or take action to influence policy.

What makes an interest group effective?

Public support, financial resources, and visibility.

How are interest groups regulated?

Federal and state laws may require lobbyists to register and disclose their clients and spending. Tax laws also limit certain political activities by tax-exempt organizations.

What are the main types of media in American political history?

The party press, popular newspapers, opinion magazines, radio, television, the Internet, social media, blogs, and podcasts.

How has the Internet changed political participation?

It has made it easier for people to organize grassroots movements, register to vote, share political information, and get involved.

What is selective exposure?

When people choose to consume news and information that agrees with their existing beliefs.

What is an echo chamber?

A media environment where people mostly hear opinions and information they already agree with. It is also called a filter bubble.

What is fake news?

Made-up or misleading stories created to support a particular point of view or candidate.

What are three ways the media affect politics?

• Agenda setting: Influencing which issues people think are important.

• Priming: Influencing the standards people use to judge political leaders.

• Framing: Influencing how people view an issue by focusing on certain information.

What does it mean for the media to act as a watchdog?

The media investigates government actions, exposes possible wrongdoing, and holds politicians accountable.

What is fact-checking?

Checking whether statements made by politicians and other public figures are true or accurate.

What is game-frame coverage?

When the media focuses more on campaign strategy, polls, and who is winning instead of the actual issues.

What is horse-race journalism?

News coverage that focuses on which candidate is ahead or behind rather than their policies.

Why does the media sometimes focus on negative stories?

Negative stories often attract more attention from the public.

Are the media always biased?

Not necessarily. The slides say there is limited evidence of widespread, obvious bias, although research does show some bias toward candidates who already hold office.

What is the FCC?

The Federal Communications Commission. It is responsible for regulating broadcasting.

How are newspapers and magazines regulated differently from broadcasting?

Newspapers and magazines are largely unregulated, while broadcasting is regulated by the FCC.

What is the equal-time rule?

A rule requiring broadcasters to provide equal opportunities to legally qualified political candidates when they allow one candidate to use their station, subject to certain exceptions.