social science exam 1

ways of knowing

ways and reasons why we believe what we believe; how we determine right and wrong

intuition, authority, logic, personal experience, values, and the scientific method

What are some examples of ways of knowing?

parents, non-partisan news sources, professors, public figures

What are some examples of relying on authority/a reputable source for ways of knowing?

religion, area of upbringing, technology

What are some examples of using values as a way of knowing?

logical fallacy

an error of reasoning/flawed statements that often sound true

ad-hominem-abusive attack logical fallacy

when an arguer attempts to refute another argument by simply attacking the source of the evidence rather than the evidence itself in a way that is directly related to the personal characteristics of the source

calling a person stupid to refute the person’s argument

What is an example of an ad hominem abusive attack?

ad-hominem circumstantial

when a person tries to refute another’s argument by claiming that the opponent’s circumstances and social standing are relevant to an argument

saying that a woman’s pro stance on abortion is wrong because she has something to gain by arguing for abortion

what is an example of an ad hominem circumstantial fallacy?

appeal to tradition

fallacy that occurs when an arguer claims that a particular belief or practice is right because it has a long history and tradition

saying that there is no need to reconsider the education system’s way of categorizing children by age and instead thinking of categorizing by abilities because the system has always categorized by age

what is an example of the appeal to tradition logical fallacy?

hasty generalization

fallacy that occurs when an arguer reaches a conclusion about a group on the basis of a small or unrepresentative sample of that group

if someone concludes that all toyota cars are unreliable because of a toyota they rented

What is an example of a hasty generalization?

fallacy of anecdotal evidence

happens when an arguer denies the truth or plausibility of a generalization based on their knowledge of a counterinstance

somebody denying that smoking causes lung cancer and other serious health problems because their uncle smoked three packs a day and lived to 90

What is an example of the fallacy of anecdotal evidence?

straw person

the fallacy that occurs when someone reformulates another person’s argument in a such a way that it is more vulnerable to objections and harder to defend

when somebody says that there should be an increase of public transportation instead of car dependency, and somebody replies saying “oh so you want to take away all cars so that we have to depend entirely on public transportation”

what is an example of the straw person fallacy?

slippery slope fallacy

happens when an arguer claims that accepting a certain position will soon lead to greater and greater disastrous outcomes, although there is no evidence connecting the position to the terrible outcome

asking a friend to lend their car while you have a clean driving record, and your friend says no because you will not drive carefully and will wind up in an accident that wrecks the car

What is an example of the slippery slope fallacy?

false dilemma fallacy

happens when an arguer presents two options as if they are the only ones, while obvious alternatives are easily available

receiving a poor grade on an exam and thinking that it shows a lack of intelligence or the evidence of a poor environment where you grew up

What is an example of the false dilemma fallacy?

appeal to ignorance

happens when someone argues for a particular conclusion on the basis of an absence of evidence

arguing that cancer can never be cured because there is no cure

what is an example of the appeal to ignorance fallacy?

complex question fallacy

occurs when an arguer embeds a controversial assumption in a question so that a response to the question will confirm the assumption

when someone asks whether you will finally admit you do drugs or not, and you answer no, it implies that you do in fact do drugs

what is an example of the complex question fallacy?

perfectionist fallacy

a special kind of false dilemma that occurs when an arguer objects to a proposal on the grounds that the proposal will not lead to a perfect result

searching for an elderly care center, asking the workers if the place is perfect, they answer its pretty good, you decide not to go there because it is not perfect

What is an example of the perfectionist fallacy?

questionable analogy fallacy

compares two things that are no similar enough for the comparison to support the conclusion

saying that similar to how you put a bridge under too much stress it breaks, the same thing also happens to people

What is an example of a questionable analogy?

the difference is that when assessing credibility, you are determining if the source of the claim is sufficient. This means determining if the source is relevant in experience/expertise. The fallacy is when you rule out the source as credible merely because they will gain from us accepting the claim as true

What is the difference between assessing credibility and committing the ad hominem circumstantial fallacy?

testimonial injustice - when a speaker receives an unfair credibility deficit on the part of the hearer due to a prejudice on the hearer’s part

doubly harmful because the person how has to face both discrimination and skepticism/denial of that experience

What is testimonial injustice and how is it doubly harmful for people who experience discrimination?

because it reflects anxieties/fears we have around social change and reform. this can appear in reasonable requests for accommodations too, and change can feel too overwhelming to individuals who have never had to experience change before. many people who have not had to acknowledge change or privilege interpret change as a stripping of rights

Why are people so likely to engage in the slippery slope fallacy when discussing controversial social issues?

no, they are not. this is because people can change beliefs on some things and still be committed to core values of theirs

Linker describes 10 logical fallacies. Are they always fallacies in every context? Why or why not?

• that we share the common experience of having been brought up by adults with biased and stereotypical beliefs

• that though we may disagree with some of Uncle Moe’s social beliefs and attitudes, it does not follow that we don’t love or care for Uncle Moe

What is one lesson we can learn from Uncle Moe?

1. the person must be willing to consider relevant counterevidence to the claim if we are able to present it

2. we must remain open to the person’s relevant supporting evidence even if we don’t like it or if it means that we were wrong about the person being biased

3. if upon further reflection the person admits that he or she was simply being thoughtless or trying to be humorous, we reassure the person that we too have made such mistakes and understand how they happen

What are the three conditions that need to be met when applying the principle of conditional trust in a dialogue about social identity and difference?

we should pay attention to social myths and stereotypes because this can result in the suspension of conditional trust, and we should replace it with caution and skepticism. it also minimizes an entire population’s experience usually to one term that has negative connotations to it. we can gain more information on subjects like this by being open minded and seeking out educated opinions on these topics

Why should we, as intellectually empathic critical thinkers, pay special attention to information and evidence related to social myths and stereotypes? give one concrete example of how you could gain more of this kind of information.

because misconceptions and myths are the things that often sabotage our critical thinking skills in debates about social issues. this requires using the elements of intellectual empathy because it enforces us to become better at applying principle trust and mutual vulnerability

why is it important to remain in a dialogue with someone whom we judge to have made a stereotypical comment? how does doing this require using one or more of the five elements of intellectual empathy?

because vulnerability begins with an understanding of the bodily dimensions of reasoning and argumentation, particularly when it comes to matters of social difference. admitting social biases can fell physically uncomfortable since we might be embarrassed, afraid, or defiant

how does the recognition of our mutual vulnerability relate to the role that emotion plays in our thinking and reasoning about social identity and difference?

it can help us find common ground by allowing us to relax to defensive reactions and loosen the hold we have on self image, called intentional flexibility. humor can make it harder to find common ground by using it to further social agendas and social differences, maybe even stereotypes. Chappelle, Cho, and Carlin use humor to laugh with their audience at the stereotypes, making the stereotype the joke

in what ways can humor help us to find common ground on issues of social identity and difference? in what ways can humor make it harder to find common ground? Use examples from the comedians mentioned in Linker and types of comedy referenced.

• who says so?

• how do they know?

• what’s missing?

• did somebody change the subject? (census)

• how is the question phrased?

• probability vs certainty

• correlation does not equal causation

Outline Huff’s recommendations for how to determine whether a statistic is “phony” or not.

race

a set of common physical traits that do not exist on a scientific level, but rather are socially constructed

ethnicity

1. an identity within a group of people who share cultural conditions related to shared history/common ancestry

2. a socially constructed system of rules about who belongs and who does not to a particular group based on actual or perceived commonality of origin, race, culture. clearly tied to place.

social identity theory

the idea that people derive a sense of self-esteem from their social identity and favor groups they belong to in order to enhance their self esteem

ethnocentrism

taking what is normalized / associated to a certain culture/racial group to be normal which results a subtle inflation / normalization of that culture or race in humanity

since people are treated differently based on race, we find comfort in shared experiences which creates ethnicity. This often provides a source of support and community

How is race used as social support?

state law has quantified racial identity through the Phipps case, which determined that biological basis has a place in race. This occurred through the one drop test.

according to omi and winant, in what ways has state law “quantified racial identity”?

the difference is that the modern definition focuses on social relations and historical context, while the biological differences focused on biology and genes as a part of determining race. race under the modern definition is more fluid while the old definition makes race more rigid

looking to omi and winants discussion of race as a sociohistorical concept, discuss the difference between this more recent understanding of race and earlier notions of race as a biological concept

omi and winant argue that these racial ideologies are significant because they are essential to social order in the united states. we see this through their talk of television and how they display racial minorities. the difference, however, because the ones used to shape american social order are often so rooted into culture that the stereotypes embedded are usually seen as immovable, whereas other racial meanings, stereotypes, and myths can be disproven with further expansion on the topic.

according to omi and winant, what is the significance of persistent racial ideologies in the united states? How is this a presence of a “system of racial meanings and stereotypes” different from more particular racial meanings, stereotypes, and myths?

when racial labels reach a topic or thing that was not previously associated with race

in your own words, define the important key term “racialization”

the act of race changing over time, and what it means, even in institutions, identities, etc

define the term “racial formation”. Why is it such a difficult concept to grasp?

they reconfigured the category of whiteness by including previously segregated and looked down upon immigrant groups into predominantly white communities and cultures. this shift predominantly benefited the jews in the united states at the time.

according to brodkin, how did US state government policies reconfigure the category of whiteness? Which groups of immigrants benefited from this shift?

scientific racism shaped these things because it categorized certain immigrant groups as a part of '“white”, which was celebrated, while categorizing others as their own inferior race. this then effected the “inferior” race’s access to education, language, and so on.

in brodkin’s account of the early twentieth century, how did scientific racism shape immigration, education, and language?

brodkins question presents an interesting dilemma. Considering how race and its meanings, inclusions, and exclusions can differ and change over time, it is fair to say that being incorporated into an expanded version of whiteness opens up the economic doors. if certain immigrant groups were not granted the opportunities they had to achieve middle class, even though it was still a part of their culture, brodkin argues it would not have happened. it also true however that through this inclusion, money has become more predominantly associated with what society deems “white”.

respond to brodkin’s question, “Did money whiten? Or did being incorporated into an expanded version of whiteness open up the economic doors to middle class status?”

lopez is saying that there is no biological framework for race, but rather it is entirely created and crafted by society and is often something used to categorize individuals in society

What does lopez mean when he says that race is a social construction?

one example is how mexican people are perceived by Anglo-saxons throughout history. from being portrayed as hardworking and then to lazy

give an example of how racial meanings can change from the Lopez reading

even though race is a social construction, the whole is often bigger than the individual. this means that although someone’s race can change throughout time because of the implications that comes with the title just the title in general, a person cannot change their race on own individual accounts because it is under a societal construction race exists, not an individual one.

if race is a social construction, does that mean people can change their race? Why or why not?

gender identity

someone’s own understanding of themself as a gendered person; how someone views or sees themselves through the lens of gender

gender

the social and cultural creation of biological s3x; a system of classification that usually uses masculinity & femininity

s3x

biological assignment at birth; male or female

1. society expects biology to line with up gender, which results in gendered expectations from birth assignment

2. your identity / sense of self belonging to a certain gender category or lack thereof

3. roles like appearances, preferences,jobs, etc that signal a membership of a certain genedered group

4. how others perceive you and your gender - ascription / attribution

How do individuals become gendered?

androcentrism

taking that which is associated with male to be normative; the implicit conflation of maleness with humanity

they are all connected because they are societal pressures that push men to enact a certain lifestyle, character, and attitude. These stereotypes often leave men having to be strong, overly competitive, and powerful in society

How are the six characteristics of the male role stereotype connected?

the cost to men is the possibility of being rejected from social settings due to not fitting into the stereotype, results in physical problems like stress and fatigue from constant competition, and a lack of choice in career fields because of the pressure to have a high paying job no matter the cost

Explain the cost to men of conforming to the male role stereotype.

hard time forming a true connection in a relationship due to inability to be emotional and constant competition in their lifestyle

What other costs might have the author included?

most people view gender differences as innate, or unchangeable

According to Conley in “Men, Women, and the Bedroom”, how do most people view gender differences?

they challenge these views by setting up social scenarios in which the roles are reversed. An example is speed dating. This showed that when the roles were reversed, and women were put into the positions of social power, stereotypes surrounding genders dissappeared. Showed that gender differences are not innate but instead socially constructed

How do the research findings in the article “Men, Women, and the Bedroom” challenge the idea that gender differences are innate or biological?

doing gender is when people / members of society conform to gender constructs, either by doing so themselves or assuming things about others or objects in society due to the gender constructs we know. for example wearing skirt as female or assuming a baby or dog is a boy because it is wearing blue

What is “doing gender”?

she means that they are not one in the same, and do not have to be linked together. for example, an assigned male at birth can still be feminine presenting, and it would not mean that he is still not a male. they do not have to always line up or be determined by one another

What does Lorber mean when she says that “gender and sex are not equivalent”?

it means that things or attributes in society often associated with female or male are not entirely real, and do not equate to someone’s actual biological sex. she argues that these attributes are entirely made up by society and cannot be used to evaluate someone’s sex

What does Lorber mean when she says that “there is no essential femaleness or

maleness”?

it is defined as a process by explaining how individuals in society are continually pushed and expected to be a certain way and act a certain way due to gendered expectations. it is a process because people can attribute gender to multiple facets of life, which results in people pursuing gender and continuing the process

How is gender defined as a “process” in “Night to His Day”?

because although there is gender in society, different genders are also held at different levels of respect. this results in the stratification of gender, since once gender is often viewed as more respectable, normal, or acceptable in society than the other (male more accepted)

How is gender defined as a “stratification system”?

defined as a structure because gender is used as a social order, and can systematically judge or appoint men and women in society.

How is gender defined as a “structure”?

sexual identity

multidimensional concept involving erotic attraction, affectional relationships, sexual behavior, erotic fantasies, and emotional attachments; can be heterosexual or LGBTQ+

• sexual/romantic attraction

• sexual behavior

• sexual identity

What are some components of sexuality?

principle of consistency

assumes relationships between sexuality and gender expresses a natural and universal order, and that sex, sexual orientation, gender should match. relies on binaries and assumes masculinity and femininity as complimentary roles

heterocentrism

taking that which is associated with heterosexual to be normative

intersex

a state in which an individual is born with hormonal, anatomical, reproductive, or chromosomal characteristics that do not fit typical binary definitions of male and female

I think Messner believed that he was 100% straight because that is what he was taught was normal and possible, and he did seem to find girls attractive. he realizes otherwise once he had to rethink about childhood memories, and he came across a couple in which he had felt romantic feelings for a boy on his sports team.

Why do you think Messner believed that he was 100% straight? In the story that he tells in the

article, what made him realize otherwise?

it means that there is a social construct and structure that invisibly expects and pushes individuals to live and act as heterosexuals. it almost does not allow the exploration of other sexualities, and provides the assumption that one is heterosexual

What is meant by “the institution of compulsory heterosexuality”?

messner became 100% straight by subjecting himself to social norms and repressing feelings that suggested otherwise. he became 100% straight by fitting into the stereotypical heterosexual male archetype, and living by it in his actions, even if his feelings didn’t fully agree. this looked like surrounding himself with fellow hetereosexual males, believing social norms, and forcing his own emotions away

How did Messner become 100% straight?

playing sports contributed to messner’s hetereosexual and masculine identities because sports are often gendered as masculine, and so by him being surrounded by this and others who did the same, he was perceived by others and himself as more masculine and heterosexual

How did playing sports contribute to Messner’s heterosexual and masculine identities?

doing heterosexuality is the act of percieving things and forcing yourself into a heterosexual stereotype in order to reduce stigmas that might arise otherwise and to better fit in into the social norm of heterocentrism

What is “doing heterosexuality”?

they were first used to describe sexual experiences; which later meant that heterosexual sex was for non pro creative reasons

According to the reading, in what context were the terms “heterosexual” and “homosexual” first

used?

it shows that heterosexuality is not an unchangable order or truth in society, but instead highlights how hetereosexuality is a socially constructed organization or category that is subject to change in meaning

According to the reading, what is revealed by studying the history of sexuality and, in particular,

heterosexuality?

procreative and non procreative sex; sex just for pleasure and sex for the purpose of reproduction

Before “hetero/homo” became the main way of sorting sex, the reading says there was a different

major moral binary. What was it?

She means they were not called such a name, and were not organized accordingly. not saying there were not people who were attracted to the opposite sex, but instead it was not a label they were given

According to Blank (as quoted in the reading), what does she mean by saying “Prior to 1868, there were no heterosexuals”?

social class

an experience of shared economic circumstances and shared social and cultural practices in relation to positions of power

income

how much money is received from working

wealth

accumulation of resources; things like personal property, monetary savings, capital wealth

prestige

degree of respect/regard or importance of a person according to society

power

degree to which a person can control others

human capital

the accumulation of a person’s individual skills, can include things like education and occupation

social capital

the accumulation of an individual’s connections, can include their affiliation with groups and is affected by residental factors

cultural capital

an individual’s knowledge of, participation in, and consumption of elements of culture. can include things like family heritage, cultural goods, attitudes, preferences, and behaviors

1. cash

2. credentials

3. culture

What are the three different ways to define the “middle class”?

the middle 60% of households on the income scale in a particular area

What is the “middle class” when it’s determined by income?

middle class is determined by education level and what occupations have been held. usually the middle class can be asserted by some education and a decently prestigious or powerful job

What is the “middle class” when it’s determined by credentials?

this means that middle class is looked at through the lens of what aspirations they have, goals, behaviors, and attitudes

What is the “middle class” when it’s determined by culture?

it matters because depending on what the definition is, it can affect future research in areas like economics, social difficulties, and even how we handle public situations. if the middle class is only defined through economic lenses, this negates the entire culture and credentials aspect, which results in skewed data.

Why does a definition of the “the middle class” matter? What are different consequences depending on how the middle class is defined?

i think the cultural definition is best, but unfortunately i think the income is the best way to actually assess since it is easily readable, applicable, and tangible

which definition do you think is best?