Modules 5–7: Sensation, Perception, Memory, Cognition, and Intelligence

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering sensation and perception, visual and auditory anatomy, memory systems, neurobiology, cognitive biases, problem-solving, and theories of intelligence.

Sensation

The process of receiving information of the environment through the senses by detecting physical energy (light, sound, pressure, chemicals) in sensory organs via bottom-up processing.

Perception

How the brain organizes, interprets, and makes meaning of sensory information into meaningful categories (faces, voices, objects, danger) using both top-down and bottom-up processing.

Bottom-up processing

The taking in and processing of raw sensory data.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, using expectations, memory, and context.

Attention

The process that determines which pieces of sensory information your brain selects for deeper processing and what it ignores.

Inattentional Blindness

The failure to notice unexpected events when attention is focused somewhere else.

Cornea & lens

Eye structures that bend and reflect incoming light to focus on the retina; the lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances.

Retina

The structure in the eye where light is converted into neural signals.

Optic nerve

The nerve that sends neural signals from the retina to the brain's visual cortex for processing.

Myopia

Nearsightedness occurring when the eyeball is too long or the cornea is too curved; corrected by concave lenses that spread light out.

Hyperopia

Farsightedness occurring when the eyeball is too short or the cornea is too flat; corrected with convex lenses that bend light inwards.

Astigmatism

A visual defect caused by irregular cornea or lens curvature; corrected with cylindrical lenses to fix uneven focusing.

Eardrum

The membrane that vibrates when struck by sound waves, serving as the first step in converting air pressure into mechanical movement.

Ossicles (Middle ear)

Three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that amplify vibrations.

Cochlea

A fluid-filled, spiral-shaped organ containing thousands of tiny hair cells that bend in response to vibrations to create electrical signals.

Constructive Theory

Perception theory suggesting that perception of the world is actively built from past experiences, expectations, and interactions.

Ecological Theory

Perception theory arguing that perception is direct and we pick up information from the environment without needing deep interpretation.

Information Processing Theory

Theory proposing that the mind works like a computer, where perception occurs through a sequence of steps: sensory input, organization, comparison to memories, and recognition.

Pragnanz / Simplicity

Gestalt principle stating that reality is reduced to its simplest form.

Encoding

The input of information into the memory system, where the brain labels, codes, organizes with similar info, and connects new concepts.

Automatic Processing

The encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words without conscious awareness.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires a lot of work and attention to process information.

Semantic encoding

The encoding of words and their meanings, involving deeper processing.

Self-reference Effect

The tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that is less personally relevant.

Sensory memory

Brief storage of environmental sensory events (such as sights, sounds, and tastes) lasting up to a couple seconds.

Short-term memory (STM)

A temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory, lasting $15\text{--}30\,\text{seconds}$.

Long-term memory (LTM)

The continuous, unlimited storage of information, organized semantically into concepts, categories, linguistic info, images, or ideas arranged hierarchically.

Consolidation

The process by which memories are stabilized for long-term storage in key brain areas (hippocampus, amygdala, cortex); improved with sleep, spaced practice, and emotional connection.

Explicit memories

Memories that we consciously try to recall, remember, and report.

Episodic memories

Information and memory about events that were personally experienced.

Implicit memories

Long-term memories that are not part of our consciousness, demonstrated by performance in a task.

Procedural memory

A form of implicit memory that stores information about how to do something (learned/observed actions, such as driving or brushing teeth).

Flashbulb memories

Vivid, emotionally charged memories of surprising or significant events, such as accidents, natural disasters, or personal milestones.

Recall

A form of retrieval in which stored information is accessed without cues.

Recognition

A form of retrieval where you identify information that was previously learned after encountering it again.

Engram

A group of neurons that serve as the physical representation of memory.

Equipotentially hypothesis

Hypothesis stating that if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function.

Arousal theory

Theory stating that strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories.

Anterograde amnesia

A form of amnesia where new information cannot be remembered following injury (affecting the hippocampus), though previous information and the ability to form procedural memories remain intact.

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memory for events that occurred prior to injury or trauma, creating difficulty with remembering episodic memories.

Suggestibility

The effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories.

Misinformation effect

When exposure to additional, possibly inaccurate information causes a person to misremember the original event experienced.

Encoding failure

Memory loss that happens before the memory process actually begins.

Proactive interference

A memory error occurring when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.

Retroactive interference

A memory error occurring when newly learned information hinders the recall of older information.

Beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles

Biological hallmarks that disrupt communication between neurons, leading to progressive and permanent memory loss in Alzheimer's disease.

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list.

Chunking

Organizing information into manageable bits or chunks (commonly used for dates and phone numbers).

Elaborative rehearsal

A memory technique focusing on the meaning of new information and connecting it to knowledge already stored in memory.

Metacognition

The process of identifying and prioritizing topics that you struggle with the most.

Prototype

The best example or representation of a concept.

Schematas

A mental construct of various concepts, including role schemas (assumptions on how people in roles behave) and event schemas (routine behaviors).

Algorithm

A step-by-step, rule-based problem-solving procedure that guarantees a solution.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that reduces cognitive load; a general problem-solving framework.

Mental set

A problem-solving pitfall where a person persists in using the same strategy even when it no longer works.

Functional fixedness

A cognitive pitfall where an individual sees objects only in terms of their typical function.

Anchoring bias

The tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or solving problems.

Confirmation bias

A decision bias where an individual focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs.

Hindsight bias

The belief that an event just experienced was predictable.

General (g-factor)

Charles Spearman's theory proposing that one broad ability supports performance across many mental tasks.

Triarchic theory

Robert Sternberg's model proposing three types of intelligence: analytical (problem-solving), creative, and practical (everyday reasoning).

Divergent thinking

Thinking outside the box to provide a unique explanation or novel solution.

Range of reaction

The theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on genetic makeup.

Dysgraphia

A learning disability characterized by difficulty writing legibly.

Dyscalculia

A learning disability characterized by difficulty learning and understanding arithmetics and numbers.

Savant syndrome

A condition in which a person with developmental or cognitive differences displays extraordinary skills in narrow domains.