Understanding the Self: Philosophical, Sociological, Psychological, and Cross-Cultural Perspectives

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering the philosophical, sociological, psychological, and Eastern versus Western conceptualizations of the self across Lessons 1 through 4.

What are the Greek roots of the word "philosophy" and what do they mean?

The Greek roots are "philo-" meaning "love" and "-sophos" meaning "wisdom."

Which ancient philosopher is depicted in this bust, who asserted that "an unexamined life is not worth living"?

Socrates

According to Socrates, what is the highest form of human existence and the lifelong mission of man?

The highest form of human existence is to question oneself and others, fulfilling the mission to "Know Yourself."

Which classical Greek philosopher is shown in this sculpture, known for dividing the human soul into three parts?

Plato

What are the three parts of the human soul according to Plato, and how is justice achieved within a person?

The soul is divided into the appetitive, spirited, and rational parts. Justice is achieved when the rational soul governs and all three parts work harmoniously.

Which philosopher and theologian is depicted in this artwork holding a flaming heart?

Saint Augustine (Augustine of Hippo)

How did Saint Augustine's view of the soul differ from Plato's concept of reincarnation?

Augustine asserted that the soul does not jump from body to body; instead, each person is composed of one body and one immortal soul.

According to Thomas Aquinas, how do human beings develop self-knowledge to answer "Who am I?"?

Self-knowledge is shaped by our real-life experiences in the world and resolved from the inside through reasoning with life encounters as evidence.

Which thinker is pictured here, known as the "Father of Modern Philosophy"?

René Descartes

What is René Descartes' concept of Dualism?

The idea that reality is split into two separate parts: the physical body (a machine) and the mind (the seat of consciousness and identity).

Which philosopher is shown in this portrait, who argued that memories define personal identity?

John Locke

What is John Locke's "principle of individuation"?

The principle that a person maintains the same identity across time through consciousness and memories, regardless of physical bodily changes.

Which empiricist philosopher is shown in this portrait, who divided human experience into impressions and ideas?

David Hume

How did David Hume differentiate between impressions and ideas?

Impressions are direct sensations originating from the physical senses, whereas ideas are faint copies or images produced by thinking and reasoning about those impressions.

How did Immanuel Kant explain the combination of the "inner self" and "outer self"?

The inner self (psychological state and rational intellect) and outer self (senses and physical world) combine via an organizing mind to produce consciousness.

Why did Gilbert Ryle reject the mind-body separation, and what phrase represents his perspective?

He called mind-body separation a "category mistake," arguing that the mind does not exist separately from behavior and stating "I act, therefore I am."

What is Paul Churchland's view of "Eliminative Materialism" regarding the self?

The belief that only matter exists; therefore, the physical brain gives us our sense of self, while the non-physical mind does not exist.

Which 20th-century philosopher is pictured here, who argued that mind and body are inextricably intertwined?

Maurice Merleau-Ponty

According to Maurice Merleau-Ponty, what is the role of the physical body in relation to the self?

The body is not a prison house of the self, but the subject that embodies the self, making perception and selfhood inseparable from the physical body.

What are the six characteristics commonly used to define the self according to Stevens (1996)?

Separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary, and private.

What is the core argument of the social constructionist perspective on the self?

It argues for a merged view of the person and their social context, where the self is dynamic, multi-faceted, and continually shaped by external social interactions.

According to anthropologist Marcel Mauss, what is the difference between "moi" and "personne"?

"Moi" is a person's basic biological identity and sense of body, while "personne" comprises the social concepts, roles, and cultural expectations of living in specific institutions.

In Daryl Pasion's essay, what phrase was proposed to replace "mangarap nang mataas" (dream high), and why?

"Mangarap nang malalim" (to dream deep), to ground dreams in strong emotions, longing, and service to society rather than mere status.

What three social activities did George Herbert Mead identify as essential to developing the self?

Language, play, and games.

Which sociologist is shown here, known for formulating the concept of the "Looking-Glass Self"?

Charles Cooley

What are the three elements of Charles Cooley's "Looking-Glass Self"?

1. How we imagine we appear to others; 2. The judgment we imagine others make about us; 3. The resulting self-image based on those imagined evaluations.

How does sociological literature distinguish between "sex" and "gender"?

Sex refers to biological and physiological differences (male and female), whereas gender refers to social and cultural roles and expectations (masculine and feminine).

What are the six different family types identified in sociological studies?

Nuclear Family, Single Parent Family, Extended Family, Childless Family, Stepfamily, and Grandparent Family.

What did the research by Gray-Little & Hafdahl (2000) conclude about ethnicity and self-esteem?

African Americans who perceived themselves as belonging to ethnic minorities had lower self-esteem when comparing themselves to more advantaged Whites.

How do Dash & Tripathy (2012) define the psychological "sense of self"?

The way a person thinks about and views his or her traits, beliefs, and purpose within the world.

Which psychologist is depicted here, widely regarded as the "father of American Psychology"?

William James

How did William James distinguish between the "I Self" and the "Me Self"?

The "I Self" is the self as knower and actor in the physical world, while the "Me Self" represents an individual's reflection about their own personal traits and attributes.

What are the three components of the sense of self identified by Carl Rogers (1959)?

Self-image (how we view ourselves), self-esteem (overall sense of personal worth), and the ideal self (the person we aspire to be).

What is the difference between downward and upward social comparison (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014)?

Downward social comparison compares oneself to those worse off to boost self-concept; upward social comparison compares oneself to those better off.

According to Tesser's Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory, what three reactions occur when someone close outperforms us?

1. Distancing ourselves or redefining the relationship; 2. Reconsidering the importance of the skill; 3. Strengthening our resolve to improve that skill.

Which Austrian psychoanalyst is pictured here holding a cigar?

Sigmund Freud

In Freud's structural model of personality, how do the id, ego, and superego function?

The id demands instant gratification of primal urges; the superego holds moral standards and causes guilt; the ego operates in reality to balance the demands of both.

What are the three domains of the multiple self described by Sedikides & Spencer (2007) and Katoch & Katoch (2017)?

The experiential self (fades in deep sleep), the private self (internal narrator/interpreter), and the public self (projected outward to others).

How does Western thought regarding the self contrast with Eastern thought?

Western thought is individualistic, emphasizing autonomy and separateness; Eastern thought is collectivistic, dominated by a relational "we" perspective.

In Hinduism, what are "Brahman" and "Atman", and what is their relationship?

Brahman is the sacred universal spirit, while Atman is the human soul. The Atman undergoes reincarnation until it is fully reunited with Brahman.

What are the core concepts of the self in Buddhism, and what is Nirvana?

Buddhism teaches interconnectedness and the lack of a permanent self (self is an illusion). Releasing cravings and attachments leads to Nirvana, a state of perfect peace.

Which historical philosopher and educator is represented in this statue?

Confucius

What is the supreme goal of self-cultivation in Confucianism, and what is a "Chun-tzu"?

The goal is self-cultivation through compassion, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. A "Chun-tzu" is a noble gentleman of unselfish moral character.

What are the three central tenets of Taoism regarding living in harmony with nature?

The First Principle, the Yin-Yang classification, and the concept of Wu Wei (action-less action).

According to the 2015 YouGov life priorities study, what were the number one life desires in the West and the East?

In the West, the top priority was Love (19%); in the East, the top priority was Better Health (17%).

How do high-context and low-context cultures differ in communication style?

Low-context cultures value direct, explicit verbal messages ("say what you mean"), while high-context cultures rely on implicit meanings, nonverbal cues, and situational context.

What management diagnostic tool developed by Erin Meyer is illustrated in this diagram?

The Culture Map (mapping cultural differences across eight behavioral scales)