UTS

Cultural

creates different perceptions of the self.

Eastern

are known as the Asian countries,

Western

represents the Europe and Northern America.

Individualism

is not the idea that individuals should live like isolated entity, nor the idea that they should never get or give help from others, nor the idea that an individual never owes anything to other people.

Individualism

It is the idea that the fundamental unit of the human species that thinks, lives, and acts toward goals is the individual. This means that we can form our own independent judgments, act on our own thoughts, and disagree with others.

Western cultures

are known to be individualistic.

Collectivism

is the idea that the fundamental unit of the human species that thinks, lives, and acts toward goals is not the individual, but some group. In different variants, this group may be the family, the city, the economic class, the society, the nation, the race, or the whole human species.

Collectivism

The group exists as a super-organism separate from individuals: A group may make its own decisions, acts apart from the actions of individuals, and has its own interests apart from those of the individuals that compose it.

collectivism

, individuals are analogous to ants in the protection of their queen ant. The individual ant doesn't have minds of their own, and generally cannot disagree with the hive. Any ant that acts in a way contrary to the interests of the group is a malfunctioning ant. If an ant does not follow the certain pattern of how they protect their queen, it will be entirely unable to support itself, find other ants that support other queen ant and will surely die in short order. If the malfunctioning ant stays within the group, it will be a threat to the line appropriate to protecting the queen ant.

Asian countries

are known to be collective in nature.

Self

has been an area of interest by French and English philosophers, and evident in the ideas of Greek philosophers like Socrates and Plato.

• Descartes

in 17th century emphasized the self in his dictum "I think therefore I am" which claims that cognitive basis of the person's thoughts is proof for the existence of the self.

• Kant

believed that the self is capable of actions that entitles it to have rights as an autonomous agent.

1. Western Self as Analytic

Since analytic and inductive modes of thinking were prominent for person in western cultures, to see objects as divisible combinations of yet smaller objects. Real things are not only visualized but immaterial things like thoughts, ideas and memories would be given emphasis.

2. Western self as Monotheistic

can be known as the rigid consequence of the doctrine of normal human being. It is like forcing the concentration of supernatural capabilities.

3. Western self as Individualistic

The emphasis on individualism has direct and indirect effects on both the presentation of self (in public ways) and the experience of the self (in private awareness).

4. Western self as Materialistic and Rationalistic

The western accentuation of rational, scientific approach to reality has tended to define spiritual and immaterial phenomena as potentially superstitious and dangerous. In any society, belief system is stratified and composed of a hierarchy of interrelated, causal-explanatory models.

Confucius

was born in the period of the Zhou Dynasty in 551 BCE in the state of Lu. He grew up poor although he was descended from scholarly family.

Confucius

His philosophy is known as humanistic social philosophy which focusses on human beings and the society in general.

Confucianism

is centered on ren which can be manifested through the li (propriety), xiao (filiality), and yi (rightness).

For Confucius, ren

reflects the person's own understanding of humanity. It is found within each person and can be realized in one's personal life and relationship.

• Li the propriety.

Rules of propriety should be followed to guide human actions. These rules are the customs, ceremonies, and traditions that forms the basis of li. According to Confucius, "to master oneself and return to propriety is humanity" (Koller, 2007). Self-mastery involves self-development. Self-mastery is characterized by self-control and the will to redirect impulses to change these to socially accepted expression of human nature. Li conforms to the norms of humanity, thus one must fulfill their duties and responsibilities in this five (5) relationships: father and son, ruler and subject, older and younger brothers, husband and wife, friend and friend.

• Xiao the filiality.

This is the virtue of reverence and respect for the family. Parents should be revered for the life they and given. Children show respect to their parents by exerting efforts to take care of themselves. Reverence for parents and family is further demonstrated by bringing honor to the family, making something of himself and to earn respect of other. If, however, the person is having difficulty giving his family the honor that they deserved, he should just do this best to not disgrace the family. Relationship that exist in the family reflect hoe the person relates to others in the community. The family is the reflection of the person. How the person interacts socially and the values they emulate can all be traced back to their family environment. This forms the bases of the person's moral and social virtues (Koller, 2007).

• Yi the rightness.

The right way of behaving which is unconditional and absolute. Right is right, and what is not right is wrong. Actions must be performed and carried out because they are right actions. Confucius emphasized that actions should be performed because they are right and not for selfish benefits that they provide.

The self

refers to an individual's awareness of their own identity, thoughts, emotions, values, beliefs, and experiences. It encompasses how a person perceives, understands, and defines who they are in relation to themselves, other people, society, and the world. The concept of the self is shaped not only by personal experiences but also by cultural, philosophical, and religious traditions.

In the Western tradition,

the self is generally viewed as individualistic, autonomous, and independent

the Oriental or Eastern tradition

views the self as interconnected, relational, and inseparable from others and the universe. Eastern philosophies emphasize harmony, balance, spirituality, and the interconnectedness of all living beings.

The Western view

encourages individuals to develop confidence, independence, critical thinking, and personal responsibility. It teaches that every person has the capacity to shape their own identity through reason, choices, and achievements.

Oriental or Eastern view

emphasizes humility, self discipline, compassion, and harmony with others. It reminds individuals that true fulfillment is not achieved solely through personal success but also through meaningful relationships, inner peace, and spiritual growth.

The physical self

refers to the tangible and observable aspect of a person, including the body, physical appearance, biological characteristics, and overall health. It is one of the foundational dimensions of self-understanding, as individuals often develop their identity through their bodily experiences, interactions with others, and perceptions of their physical attributes. The way people view and care for their bodies significantly influences their confidence, behavior, relationships, and overall well-being..

Biological and Environmental factors.

The understanding of the Physical Self is shaped by

The biological blueprint

involves heredity and its important factors.

Heredity

is defined as the transmission of traits from parents to offspring. The traits are made up of specific information embedded within one's gene.

Genotype

refers to the specific information embedded within one's genes; not all genotypes translate to an observed physical characteristic.

Phenotype

is the physical expression of a particular trait. Each individual carries 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are threadlike bodies in the nucleus of the cell and the storage unit of genes.

The 23rd pair,

also known as sex chromosomes, determines the sex of an individual. Within each chromosome is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of every individual.

Maturation

is known as the completion of growth of a genetic character within an organism or the unfolding of an individual's inherent traits or potential. As you grow up, you are exposed to environmental influences that shape your physical self, including those from your social networks, societal expectations, and cultural practices that will lead a person to understand themselves.

According to Santrock (2014), self-understanding

is the individual's cognitive representation of self which consists of substance and the content of self-conceptions.

Self-understanding

can be described as simple to perplex and involve a number of aspects of the self. It also changes throughout the life span as the person grows older. As children advance in age, their interests change and with these come changes in their bodies.

The Physical Self

refers to the concrete dimensions of the body, it is the tangible aspect of the person which can be directly observed and examined.

Physical characteristics

are the defining traits or features of a person's body. This is also the first thing people see when they look at another person that could include facial features, hairstyle, clothes, or figure. They encompass everything that one can describe about a person or group of people, by just looking.

Erik Erikson

believed in the importance of the body from early development because the physical as well as intellectual skills will somehow serve as a basis to whether a person has achieved a sense of competence and be able to manage and face the demands of life complexities.

William James,

on the other hand, considered the body as the initial source of sensation and necessary for origin and maintenance of personality.

puberty.

A period of rapid physical changes is in __

Santrock, puberty

is not the same as adolescence because ___ends prior to the end of the adolescent period. But the recognized puberty as the most essential marker of the beginning of adolescence

menarche

. The changes experienced during puberty are different from girls and boys. Girls reach puberty earlier than boys and experience ____ which is her first menstrual flow.

spermarche or semenarche

Boys, two or three years later, experience ____ which is his first ejaculation or nocturnal emission (wet dreams).

Puberty

is a brain neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that triggers the rapid physical changes.

The Pituitary gland

is the master endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates functions of all the other endocrine glands including gonads. The chemical substances secreted by the gonads promotes physical changes such as height, widening of the hips and increase in fatty tissues in the breast of girls and responsible for boy's growth of facial and body hair, muscles, and changes in voice.

1. Psychodynamic Perspective

Freud's theory of the ego was primarily known as body ego, that solidifies the importance of body in understanding the self. The body and its evolving mental representations form the basis of a sense of self (Krueger, 2002).

early psychic experience

of the body

in which sensations like tactile like in infants enable babies to

discriminate bodies from their surroundings, which contribute to the sense of self.

defining body surface boundaries

which is the stage of being awareness

of body image in contrast to surface boundaries. Last stage is the

distinguishing

of the body's internal states

which is the stage of having cohesion of the body.

In these images and experiences of the body and the body, surfaces can be

organized into holistic understanding of the body.

Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on perceptual, cognitive, and affective aspects which is a multidimensional experience that can aid a more precise understanding of the body .

The cognitive-behavioral perspective

makes multiple distinctions to facilitate precise conceptual and operational definitions of body-image related variables.

Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective

____ model of body image recognizes multiple determinants of body image with a distinction between those determinants that are historical versus those determinants that are proximal or concurrent that predispose or influence how people come to think, feel, and act in relation to their body.

Feminist Perspective

Relies on the social construction in which there is a possibility of individuals to experience their bodies in distorted ways (especially, women). women's dissatisfaction with their bodies as a systematic social phenomenon rather than a result of individual pathology (McKinley, 2002).

Feminist Perspective

Specifically, the duality established between the mind and body in Western societies and the pairing of men with the "mind" and women with the "body" contribute to women experiencing their bodies differently than men.

a. Introspection and Self-reflection.

Looking inward is one of the simplest ways to achieve self-knowledge.

b. Self-Perception Theory.

As stated by Hewstone and Bem (2015) explains that since one's internal state is difficult to interpret, people can infer their inner states by observing their own behavior - as if they are an outside observer. Physical perception includes all aspects of a person's perception of his physical self.

Introspection

According to Hewstone, et al., (2015) ____is the process is the process by which one observes and examines one's internal state (mental and emotional) after behaving in a certain way.

c. Self-concept.

According to Hewstone, et al., (2015), ______ is a cognitive representation of self-knowledge which includes the sum total of all beliefs that people have about themselves. It is a collection of all individual experience involving one's characteristics, social roles, values, goals and fears. Physical concept is the individual's perception or description of his physical self, including his physical appearance.

d. Personal Identity.

This is the concept a person has about himself that

develops over the years. This includes aspects of his life that he was born into like family, nationality, gender, physical traits as well as the choices he makes, such as what he does for living, who his friends are and what he believes in.

a. Attachment Process and Social Appraisal.

According to Bowlby (1969), people learn about their value and lovability when they experience how their mothers or caregivers care for them and respond to their needs.

c. The Looking-glass Self Theory.

Charles Horton Cooley stated that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the perception of others. The view of oneself comes from a compilation of personal qualities and impressions of how others perceive the individual. Therefore, in a _____, the self-image is shaped and reflected from the social world. Other people's reactions would serve as a mirror in which people see themselves particularly the way in which they are perceived and judged by others.

d. Social Comparison

. The work of Leon Festinger in 1954 introduced another way of understanding oneself by comparing one's traits, abilities, or opinions to that of others. is a process of

comparing oneself with others in order to evaluate one's own abilities and opinions. There are two types of social comparison:

Social Identity Theory

This was formulated by tajfel and Turner 1973 which provides a framework about how people achieve understanding about themselves by being a member of their group. This idea assumes that as a member of the group they will not be discriminated against by an out-group. It will enhance their self-esteem because they feel secured with the shield of group membership where they belong. Social groups include gender, ethnicity, religion, profession, political membership and business organizations.

Technological advancements

have significantly influenced how individuals perceive, maintain, and modify their physical selves. Modern innovations in healthcare, fitness, cosmetics, and digital media have made it easier for people to monitor their health, improve their appearance, and express themselves.

Culture

plays a vital role in shaping how individuals perceive their bodies and evaluate their self-worth. Every society has its own standards of beauty, attractiveness, and physical ideals, which are transmitted through family, media, education, religion, and social traditions. These cultural expectations influence people's attitudes toward body size, skin color, facial features, clothing, and physical appearance. As individuals grow within their culture, they often internalize these ideals, affecting how they see themselves and others.

Body image

refers to a person's thoughts, feelings, and perceptions about their physical appearance, while

self-esteem

refers to the value or respect individuals have for themselves

The social constructionist approach

argues that the meaning we give to the body is shaped by culture, society, history, and social expectations

Society

creates standards and expectations, such as the idea that women should be attractive to be considered valuable.

social meanings

4. These ____can become "naturalized," meaning people begin to believe they are natural or permanent even though society created them. Because these meanings are socially created, they can also change over time

Social Constructionism

• Body is shaped by culture and society

Social Constructionism

• Meaning changes across time and place

Social Constructionism

• Behavior is influenced by social and cultural context

Essentialism

• Body is defined mainly by biology

Essentialism

• Focuses on genes, hormones, muscles, etc.

Essentialism

• Behavior may be explained through biological factors

• Social skin

refers to how social categories and expectations become reflected or "inscribed" onto the body.

• Social skin Terence S Turner

• For example, people may be praised or criticized when their appearance or behavior does not match expected ideas of masculinity or femininity. • The body becomes a symbolic representation of society's values and expectations.

1. Mary Douglas - Body as Social Symbol

The body can represent social rules, values, and boundaries. Societies may control the body through rules about appearance, behavior, clothing, and bodily boundaries.

Key idea: Controlling the body can also be a way of controlling society.

2. Erving Goffman - Dramaturgical Theory

Goffman compares social life to a stage where people are like actors. We adjust our behavior and appearance based on how we want others to see us. This is called impression management.

2. Erving Goffman - Dramaturgical Theory

Example: A person may dress formally and act professionally during an interview because they want to create a good impression.

. Body Image

is the mental picture and feelings a person has about their own body.

It includes:

• How we see our body

• How we feel about our appearance

• What we think and tell ourselves about our body

• How we think others see our body

is influenced by both personal experiences and society. It may not always match how other people actually see us.

4. Media and Cultural Beauty Standards

Media such as TV, movies, magazines, and social media can reinforce ideas about what is considered beautiful. Society may create an "ideal body" for men and women. People who do not fit these standards may be unfairly labelled as "ugly" or unattractive. This can lead young people to compare themselves with unrealistic ideals.

Key Idea: Beauty standards are influenced by culture and media, and they can affect how we feel about ourselves.

5. Body Image and Self-Esteem

A positive body image means accepting and appreciating your body in its different shapes and sizes. Physical appearance does not determine a person's character or worth. Positive body image can contribute to healthy self-esteem, confidence, and better relationships.

Simple Connection: Body Image → How I feel about my body → Self-Esteem → How I feel about myself

Self-esteem

is a person's overall evaluation of their own worth or value.

6. Beauty Is Not One-Size-Fits-All

People have naturally different body shapes, sizes, features, and appearances. Cultural standards of beauty can change across time and place. Problems arise when people believe there is only one definition of beauty. Young people may put unhealthy pressure on themselves to achieve unrealistic ideals.

Key Message: Beauty is influenced by culture, but no single cultural standard defines a person's worth. Everybody is different, and physical appearance does not determine someone's value.

The sexual self

is an important dimension of human identity that involves how individuals understand, perceive, and express themselves in relation to their bodies, sexuality, gender, relationships, and personal values. It develops through a combination of biological, psychological, social, and cultural influences.

Sexual selfhood

is defined as how one thinks about himself or herself as a sexual individual. Human sexuality is a topic that just like beauty is culturally diverse. This should be understood in varied ways.

Historical Perspective

In ___ it is the male that assumes the dominant role. The male symbol, the penis, was viewed as the symbol of fertility and how the male body was structured and was greatly admired. Their wives were considered as objects to be possessed just like property. Women, on the other hand, were forbidden to own property and had no legal and only function was to bear children.

"gyne"

The Greek word for woman is ___ means - bearer of children.

In the Middle Ages (476-1450),

bore witness to the strong influence of church particularly in matters of sexuality. The church decreed that all sexual acts that do not lead to procreation were considered evil. Women were labelled as either temptress (like Eve) or a woman of virtue (like Virgin Mary).

Protestantism

In the protestant reformation of the 16th century (1483-1546) Martin Luther, John Calvin and other Protestant leaders initiated a movement against the Roman Catholic Church. _____believed that sexuality is a natural part of life and that priests should be able to marry and have families. Martin Luther King and John Calvin believed that the reason for sexual intimacy was to strengthen the physical and emotional bond between husbands and wives and not just procreation.

Puritans

By the 17th and 18th century, the ____, a group of people who were discontented with the Church of England rallied for religious, moral and societal reformation. They had positive view on marital sex and did not tolerate sex outside marriage. Premarital sex, therefore, was considered immoral.

Victorian Era

homosexuality and prostitution were rampant and considered to be threats to social order. People in this era were not comfortable in discussing breast or buttocks, they used other terms instead.

Through the years and in the 20th century,

interest in sexuality became more evident and accepted in society. The separation of church and state reduced the influence the church had over sexual mores. Also, the rise of feminism allowed for changes in employment, home life, and sexual standards for women. Over time, cultural diversity and social norms offered varied views on what today may be considered as sexually normal.

2. Biological Perspective

Knowing the structures and functions of the reproductive system is essential to the understanding of sexuality. In the nervous system, it is the brain that initiates and organizes sexual behavior. Through the process of sexual reproduction, the next generation of human beings are created by the fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell. This will be discussed further in the next pages.