AP Psychology: Perspectives and Research Methods

Vocabulary practice flashcards for AP Psychology Unit 0 Topic 7, covering core perspectives, research methodologies, statistical analysis, and ethical guidelines.

Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes and behavior.

Mental Processes

The thinking parts of our brain, encompassing everything happening inside our heads that cannot be observed from the outside.

Behavior

What people do and how they act; all observable actions that can be seen from the outside.

Evolutionary Perspective

A psychological perspective centered on how evolution has shaped human behavior over time, focusing on patterns and actions that aided survival and reproduction.

Behaviorism

A psychological perspective stating that observable human behavior is learned and influenced by environmental stimuli.

Psychodynamic Perspective

A psychological perspective that explores the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior, asserting that inner conflict and childhood experiences shape who we become.

Biological Perspective

A psychological perspective investigating how behavior is linked to the brain and nervous system, examining hormones, neurotransmitters, and genetics.

Socio-Cultural Perspective

A psychological perspective focusing on how the presence of others, culture, social norms, values, and traditions influence human behavior.

Cognitive Perspective

A psychological perspective concentrating on how mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem-solving, and perception shape human behavior.

Humanism

A psychological perspective believing that humans are innately good, possess free will, and focus on personal growth to achieve self-actualization.

Confirmation Bias

A cognitive bias where people tend to look for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms their pre-existing beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

A cognitive bias leading people to believe they knew an outcome was going to happen after it already occurred.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias where people have excessive faith in their own judgments or abilities, believing they know more than they actually do.

Empirical Evidence

Information obtained directly through observation, experimentation, or measurement that provides objective data to prevent cognitive bias.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach in psychology used to study human behavior and mental processes through observations, hypotheses, experimentation, data analysis, and drawing evidence-based conclusions.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or outcome of a study.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis formulated in such a way that it can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation.

Peer Review

The evaluation process where research articles and studies are critically assessed by experts in the field before publication in academic journals.

Replication

The process of repeating a research study with new participants under similar conditions to determine if original findings are consistent.

Reliability

The degree to which a test or measurement tool produces consistent results when administered repeatedly under similar conditions ("RRR" = Repeated, Reliable Results).

Validity

The extent to which a research study or measurement tool accurately measures what it intends to measure ("VET" = Valid Evidence, True).

American Psychological Association (APA)

A leading professional organization founded in 1892 dedicated to advancing psychology and promoting psychological knowledge to improve human welfare.

Research Design

The overall plan or strategy outlining how a research study will be conducted to address specific research questions.

Methodology

The specific techniques and systematic procedures used to collect and analyze data within a chosen research design.

Quantitative Data

Numerical information gathered through surveys, tests, or experiments that helps measure variables and identify patterns precisely.

Qualitative Data

Non-numerical information gathered from interviews or observations that offers deep insights into human experiences and behaviors.

Likert Scale

A rating scale used in surveys to assess attitudes or opinions by asking respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement across options like 'Strongly Agree' to 'Strongly Disagree'.

Structured Interview

A standardized research technique where predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the exact same order.

Survey Technique

A research method used to collect self-reported data from a sample regarding their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors through questionnaires or interviews.

Wording Effect

The phenomenon where subtle changes in how a survey question is phrased alter respondents' interpretations and choices.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of participants to answer survey questions in a way that aligns with social norms or is viewed favorably by others rather than providing truthful answers.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method involving observing and recording behavior in real-world settings without intervening or manipulating variables.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or unique event, which provides rich detail but may lack generalizability.

Correlational Research

A scientific method that measures and analyzes the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.

Third Variable Problem

The situation in correlational research where an unmeasured third variable influences both variables of interest, preventing direct cause-and-effect conclusions.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation in correlational research showing individual data points used to assess the strength and direction of a correlation.

Correlation Coefficient ($r$)

A statistical metric ranging from $-1$ to $+1$ that quantifies the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where two variables move in the same direction, meaning as one increases, the other also increases.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where two variables move in opposite directions, meaning as one increases, the other decreases.

Experimental Method

A research design that manipulates an independent variable to establish cause-and-effect relationships on a measured dependent variable.

Independent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is deliberately manipulated or controlled by the researcher to determine its effect.

Dependent Variable

The outcome variable in an experiment that is measured to observe changes caused by the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An extraneous variable not controlled by researchers that inadvertently influences the dependent variable, clouding causal claims.

Operational Definition

A precise explanation specifying how abstract constructs or variables will be measured and manipulated in a study.

Experimental Group

The group of participants in an experiment who receive the independent variable treatment being tested.

Control Group

The baseline group in an experiment that is not exposed to the independent variable, used for comparison.

Random Assignment

The process of placing participants into experimental or control groups by chance to minimize initial individual differences between groups.

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon where participants experience measurable improvements or changes solely because they believe they are receiving active treatment.

Experimenter Bias

Occurs when a researcher's expectations or beliefs subtly influence study execution or interpretation of results.

Single-Blind Study

A study design where participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group, but the researchers do.

Double-Blind Study

A study design where neither the participants nor the researchers running the study know who is assigned to the experimental or control group.

Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher wants to study and draw conclusions about.

Sample

A smaller subset of individuals selected from the larger target population to participate in a research study.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the key demographics and characteristics of the broader target population.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling method where certain members of a population have a higher or lower chance of selection, producing an unrepresentative sample.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings drawn from a sample can be accurately applied to the overall target population.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical values used to organize, summarize, and describe the primary features of a dataset.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical procedures used to determine whether sample data can be generalized or inferred to represent the broader population.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a dataset, calculated by dividing the sum of all scores by the total number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a dataset when all data points are arranged in numerical order.

Mode

The score or value that occurs most frequently within a dataset.

Range

A simple measure of variance calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a dataset.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve describing data distribution where most scores fall near the center mean.

Positive Skew

A distribution of scores where the majority cluster on the left and the tail extends toward the right, indicating high outliers.

Negative Skew

A distribution of scores where the bulk of data clusters on the right and the tail extends toward the left, indicating low outliers.

Standard Deviation ($\sigma$)

A measure of variability that quantifies how much scores disperse around the mean value.

Bimodal Distribution

A data distribution displaying two distinct peaks or high points, representing two separate modes.

Statistical Significance

A statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance, typically accepted when the $p$-value is less than $0.05$.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of an experimental effect or relationship between variables.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines results from multiple independent studies on the same topic to determine overall conclusions.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An ethics committee responsible for evaluating research proposals to ensure participant protection and compliance with ethical guidelines.

Informed Consent

An ethical requirement where adult participants are fully informed about study procedures, risks, and rights prior to voluntarily agreeing to join.

Informed Assent

An age-appropriate agreement given by minors or non-autonomous participants who lack legal capacity to provide full consent.

Confidentiality

The ethical rule requiring researchers to keep all private participant information protected and non-disclosable.

Deception

Misleading study participants about true research intentions, allowed only when scientifically justified and followed by thorough debriefing.

Confederates

Individuals who pose as real study subjects but are actually working on behalf of the experimenters.

Debriefing

Post-experimental explanation given to participants detailing the true purpose, hypotheses, and any used deception in a study.