Learn: Psych 101 Exam 2 Review 2026

Memory

Learning that has persisted over time - a process by which info is stored in our brains and retrieved from our brains.

Encoding

Process by which we get info into our brains.

Storage

Process by which we retain info in brains.

Retrieval

Process by which we get info out of our brains for later use.

Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model

Formation of memories occurs in a three-stage process.

Sensory memory

First encode memories as a fleeting sensory experience - literal copies of info held in senses for brief periods of time (fraction of sec to 3 secs).

Short-term memory

Once new info encountered, needs to be processed through rehearsal - info encoded in STM; greater capacity - can hold about 7 pieces of info for about 20 seconds.

Long-term memory

Once info processed through SM and STM, info may be moved to LTM - limitless, permanent 'warehouse' - cumulated knowledge, skills, lifetime narrative, how world works, etc.

Automatic processing

Much of the info we process occurs without conscious awareness - info about space, time, other well-known behaviors.

Effortful processing

Deliberate conscious attention to process.

Serial position effect

Tend to recall best last and first items in list.

Recency effect

Immediately after learning, remember last items best.

Primacy effect

After period of time, recall first info best.

Sensory register

Iconic and echoic memory - Adaptive advantage - gives continuity to experience - otherwise would see snapshots and hear tiny staccato bursts.

Iconic memory

A fleeting photographic memory - mental trace lingers when stimulus is removed from view - info stored in rods/cones for brief time.

Sperling's experiment

Briefly, 1/20th second, flashed 3 rows of 3 letters on a screen - how many letters recalled? - about ½ for most - about five bits of information.

Echoic memory

A fleeting auditory memory - holds just a few items, lasts several seconds.

Short-term (working) memory

Duration limits of short-term memory - without active processing (rehearsal, making sense of info), STMs have limited life.

Capacity limits of short-term memory

George Miller: 7 +/- 2 bits of info.

Chunking

By grouping bits, can use storage more effectively.

Limitless storage

For info to go to LTM, elaborative rehearsal for encoding.

Format of long-term memory

Semantic coding, visual coding.

Content of long-term memory

Procedural memory, declarative memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

Think about info in a more meaningful way, make connections with other LTMs.

Semantic coding

Storing meaning of info, not specific.

visual coding

mental picture of an object or scene

procedural memory

stored knowledge of learned habits and skills (driving, walking, etc) stored w/o conscious recollection

declarative memory

facts about the world, episodic memories, about oneself - knowledge of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and declare

retrieval - testing memory (3 Rs)

Recall - ability to retrieve info not in conscious awareness; Recognition - ability to ID items previously learned; Relearning - ability to spend less time learning material a second time around

context-dependent memory

easier to retrieve info from memory when in same situation in which info was originally learned

state-dependent memory

easier to recall info when mind is in the same state in testing as in encoding

why we forget

adaptive and economical aspect of memory; Reasons for forgetting - without forgetting, would be filled with out of date, useless info

interference

Proactive interference - info already acquired inhibits ability to recall new info (prior knowledge); Retroactive interference - new info disrupts memory of previously learned info

homosapien

wise human

concept

Basic building blocks of abstract thought - mental groupings of similar persons, places, ideas, events, objects (ex: freedom, peace, happiness) - used to simplify all info we have in memory

concept priming

(=activating) - when happens, other related concepts come to mind Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971) - presented subjects with

pairs of letter strings

First string always formed a word, second string some-times did

Some trials, words were semantically related

Subjects decided faster if second string was a word if it

was semantically related

semantic networks

our concepts organized in LTM hierarchically - structure

Prototypes

how we form concepts in the first place; 'Typical' member of a category - most defining features - the more prototypical an item, the more easily and quickly we recognize it as part of a group

how we solve problems

no problem solving is necessary if we can pull the solution from memory. If we cannot, we must pull and combine concepts in new/novel ways; Representing the problem - first step

mental images

seeing it in your head

mental models

intuitive theories of the way things work - when accurate, powerful tools for reasoning - diagnosis, solution generation; ex: righty tighty...

trial and error

aimless hit-or-miss approach to solving problems - simplest, but generally least efficient

algorithms

step-by-step procedures guaranteed to eventually solve a problem - problem is that you must consider many possible solutions

heuristics

mental shortcuts - 'rules of thumb' that may or may not lead to the correct solution - speedier but more prone to error

insight

solution seems to pop into one's head all of a sudden - can generate insight within us; relax our approach, reframe the problem, and switch from one strategy to another

Representation failures

Belief that problems have no solutions - oftentimes suffer psychologically (depression, anxiety)

Functional fixedness

think of an object only in terms of its usual function - to solve problems, need to find new, creative solutions

Blind spots in problem solving

Mental sets - Inability to view problem from a fresh perspective

Confirmation bias

Seek only confirmatory—not contradictory—evidence

Belief perseverance

Cling to initial beliefs even after discredited

biases in judgement

representativeness heuristic, availability heuristic, anchoring effects, framing effects

representativeness heuristic

Judge likelihood by how typical event seems - The representativeness heuristic is a mental shortcut that helps us make a decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes.

availability heuristic

Judge likelihood by how easily event comes to mind - ex: fear of flying - The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that helps us make a decision based on how easy it is to bring something to mind.

anchoring effect

Use one stimulus as 'reference point' for judgment - ex: what proportion of African countries are in UN?

Roulette wheel

If 10, subjects guessed 25%; if 65, guessed 45% even though knew wheel was arbitrary.

Framing effect

Influenced by the way an issue is worded.

Language

Spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Communication in the animal world

Ants chemical signals, bees intricate dance, Vervit monkeys loud alarm calls specific to different predators.

Universal characteristics of language

Semanticity, generativity, displacement.

Semanticity

Used to convey meaning.

Phonemes

Basic sounds/building blocks of all spoken languages - no meaning alone.

Morphemes

Smallest unit of language to carry meaning (un-think-able).

Generativity (language)

Create infinite variety of novel expressions with finite number of words/rules to combine them.

Displacement

Use language to communicate about things other than what is in our immediate experience.

Language development

Operant conditioning - principles of learning applied to language development.

Imitation

Humans learn language from imitating words and syntax of others.

Reinforcement

When use language correctly, positively reinforced.

Inborn universal grammar

Innate ability to learn language, nature properly supported by nurture.

Reification

Viewing an abstract concept as a concrete thing ('THIS is what intelligence looks like,' etc).

Intelligence

The capacity to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt successfully to one's environment and new situations.

Definitions of intelligence

Vary from culture to culture because it is a socially defined concept.

Charles Spearman's g factor

General intelligence underlies our abilities (in form of a common skill set).

General intelligence

Evidence for the g factor - Factor analysis - statistical technique - common underlying theme to how people respond to psychological measurements.

Infant measures of intelligence

In infancy (3-6 mos), infants seem to be responsive to changes in environment, some more than others.

Neural speed

People with higher intelligence levels are quicker on a wide range of tasks.

Neural efficiency

People with higher levels of intelligence use mental energy more efficiently.

Proponents of multiple intelligences

Louis L.

Thurstone

Early opponent of Spearman who administered 56 different tests to college students and concluded that intelligence includes seven primary mental abilities.

Howard Gardner

Proposed that the definition of intelligence as problem-solving ability is too narrow and identified eight types of intelligence.

Robert Sternberg

Identified three types of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical.

Linguistic Intelligence

Ability related to speaking, listening, reading, and writing.

Logical-mathematical Intelligence

Necessary for solving puzzles and equations.

Musical Intelligence

Seen in composition and/or performance.

Spatial Intelligence

Ability to visualize objects and navigate between locations, such as map reading.

Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence

Involves body control, often seen in activities like ballet.

Interpersonal Intelligence

Ability to understand how other people feel and how to motivate them.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Understanding oneself, including thoughts, feelings, and decision-making.

Naturalist Intelligence

Understanding the laws of the natural world.

Analytic Intelligence

Ability to follow mental steps necessary to solve problems.

Creative Intelligence

Finding connections and combining seemingly unrelated facts.

Practical Intelligence

Ability to do what is necessary to adapt to life's demands.

Creativity

Ability to produce novel, valuable ideas.

Five components of creativity

Expertise, imaginative thinking, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment.

Emotional Intelligence

Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

Discussion on whether intelligence is primarily determined by genetics or environment.

Galton

Proposed that only intelligent adults should be encouraged to reproduce, linking intelligence to genetics.

Goddard

Assessed European immigrants' intelligence and concluded they were genetically inferior based on an American intelligence test.

Jensen

Claimed that IQ differences between African Americans and Caucasian Americans were due to genetics.

Shockley

Suggested a voluntary sterilization program based on the belief that intelligence is genetically rooted.

Adoption Evidence

Shows that adoption can increase the intelligence of neglected or mistreated children.