Exam 1 - Physiology Material

Understanding

Understanding and making sense out of information. To interpret, summarize, explain, infer, paraphrase, and discuss,

Remembering

Find or remember the information. To be able to list, find, name, identify, locate, describe, memorize, or deine.

What is physiology?

The study of how the body and its part function.

Human body structural/functional levels

1. Chemical level

2. Cellular level (cytology)

3. Tissue level (histology)

4. Organ level

5. Organ system level

6. Organismal level

Race

A social construct.

Vitamin D-folate hypothesis

UV light is needed for vitamin D production in the skin.

- Important for regulating calcium

UV light degrades folate

- Important for DNA synthesis, repair, and methylation (too much UV is harmful and the body protects itself by making itself darker).

Thiamine Deficiency

Causes oxidative stress, glutamate excitotoxicity, impaired glucose metabolism, inflammation, and all of these can lead to brain cell death.

Oxygen (O) 65

A component of water and other compounds; gaseous form is essential for respiration.

Carbon (C) 18.6

Found in all organic molecules.

Hydrogen (H) 9.7

A component of water and most other compound in the body.

H+

Nitrogen (N) 3.2

Found in proteins, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds.

Calcium (Ca) 1.8

Found in bones and teeth; important for membrane function, nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and blood clotting.

Phosphorus (P) 1.0

Found in bones and teeth, nucleic acids, and high-energy compounds.

Potassium (K) 0.4

Important for proper membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction.

Sodium (Na) 0.2

Important for blood volume, membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction.

Chlorine (Cl) 0.2

Important for blood volume, membrane function, and water absorption.

Magnesium (Mg) 0.06

A cofactor for many enzymes.

Sulfur (S) 0.04

Found in many proteins.

Iron (Fe) 0.007

essential for oxygen transport and energy capture.

Iodine (I) 0.0002

A component of hormones of the thyroid gland.

Trace elements

Silicon (Si)

Fluorine (F)

Copper (Cu)

Manganese (Mn)

Zinc (Zn)

Selenium (Se)

Cobalt (Co)

Molybdenum (Mo(

Cadmium (Cd)

Chromium (Cr)

Tin (Sn)

Aluminum (Al)

Boron (B)

Vanadium (V)

Some function as cofactors the function of many trace elements are poorly understood.

Anion

A negatively charged ion.

Cation

A positively charged ion.

Flux

Relating to the movement of a substance between compartments.

Le Chatelier's principle

States that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress.

Can be changes in concentration, pressure, and temp.

Increase in pressure favours the side with fewer moles. Decrease favours the side with more moles.

pH

Measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a given solution.

pH = -log [H+]

[H+ = 10^pH (cant be neg)

If [H+] = 10^-4, then pH = 4

pH +pOH = 14

Acidic things

Have a low pH, but a high hydrogen (H+) concentration.

10^-1 = 0.1

Basic things

Have a high pH but a low hydrogen (H+) concentration.

10^-14 = 0.00000000000001

Normal pH

7.35-7.45

Causes of acidosis (too acidic)

Diarrhea, kidney failure, elevated co2 due to asthma.

Losing too many bicarbonate ions.

The body breaking down fats for fuel.

Symptoms of acidosis

Inhibits brain, muscle fatigue, coma.

Causes of alkalosis (too basic)

Vomiting, breathing to quickly, panic attack, fever.

Symptoms of alkalosis

Excites brain, muscles twitch, convulsions.

Body response to pH changes

Metabolic acidosis

When glucose is not available adipose tissue (fat) can be broken down in a way that generates acidic ketones. Alcohol can promote ketone production by impairing the livers ability to make glucose.

Equation

Co2( carbon dioxide) +H20 (water) >< H2co3 (Carbonic acid)

Co2 + H2o >< H2co3 >< Hco3 + H+

Synthesis reaction

Forming larger molecule

Decomposition reaction

Breaking down larger molecule

Exchange reaction

Simultaneous synthesis and decomposition reactions because molecule parts switch around.

Buffer system

Limits the potential shift in pH caused by an excess of acid or base in the body.

Homeostasis

Maintaining a relatively stable internal environment

Stimulus

Change in a variable that disrupts homeostasis

Receptor

Cells that dectect change

Control center

Brain or endocrine system

Effector

Organ/tissue/structure that productes a response

Response

Effect that returns variable to homeostatic level.

Negative feedback

Reduces the intensity of the stimulus back towards the baseline. Sweating

Positive feedback

Increases the intensity of the stimulus away from the baseline. Paper cut

Digestive steps

Ingestion

Mechanical processing

Digestion

Secretion

Absorption

Excretion

Ingestion

Food placed in mouth

Mechanical processing

Physical fragmentation of food into smaller pieces.

DIgestion

Chemical breakdown of food.

Secretion

Movement of substances into the digestive tract.

Absorption

Movement of substances out of the digestive tract and into the blood.

Excretion

Removal of waste products

Mouth

Breaks up food particles, assists in producing spoken language.

Pharynx

Swallows.

Liver

Breaks down and builds up many biological molecules.

Stores vitamins and iron.

Destroys old blood cells, poison, and aids in digestion.

Stores: fats and glucose

Mechanical digestion:Bile

Gallbladder

Stores and concentrates bile.

Small intestine

Digestion completion: Finishes breaking down nutrients.

Nutrient absorption: Absorbs essential nutrients and water.

Wall protection: Secretes mucus for defense.

Enzymatic action: Breaks down proteins, sugars, and starch.

Peptidase digests proteins.

Sucrases digests sugars.

Amylase digests polysaccharides.

Anus

Opening for elimination.

Salivary glands

Saliva moistens and lubricates food.

Amylase digests polysaccharides.

Esophagus

Transports food.

Stomach

Stores and churs food. Pepsin digests protein.

HCI acivates enzymes, breaks up food, and kills germs.

Mucus protects the stomach wall and has limited absorption.

Pancreas

Hormones regulate blood glucose levels.

Bicarbonates neutralize stomach acid.

Secrets hormones like insulin, sodium bicarbonate, and enzymes.

Large intestine

Reabsorbs some water and ions. Forms and stores feces.

Rectum

Stores and expels feces.

Protease

Enzyme to break down proteins.

Lipase

Enzyme to breakdown lipids.

Amylase

Enzyme to breakdown carbohydrates.

Enzyme

A type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living thing.

Bile salts

Help emulsify fats. They are produces in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.

Gallstones

Small crystals that form from bile in the gallbladder. Can form blockages in the passageway.

The liver puts too much fat into your digestive liquid, and it can't dissolve.

MASLD

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease.

Health equity

The attainment of the highest level of health for all people.

Peristalsis

Moves the bolus of food through the digestive tract.

First circular muscles constrict esophagus behind food.

Then longitudinal muscles contract, lengthening food mass and pushing it forward.

Lining of esophagus

Epithelial tissue,

3 methods of mechanical digestion

Propulsion

Grinding

Retropulsion

Propulsion

Peristaltic waves move from the fundus toward the pylorus.

Grinding

The most vigorous peristalsis and mixing action occur close to the pylorus. The pyloric end of the stomach acts as a pump that delivers small amounts of chyme into the duodenum.

Retropulsion

The peristaltic wave closes the pyloric valve, forcing most of the contents of the pylorus backward into the stomach.

Dr Beaumont

Studies digestion through permanent opening into his stomach. He tastes stomach mucus and finds it is not acidic.

He tests the rate at which different foods break down.

Gastrin

A hormone that activates the gastric glands.

Hydrochloric acid (HCI)

Converts pepsinogen into pepsin (an enzyme for breaking down protein).

Mucus

Protects the lining of the stomach from stomach acid.

Intrinsic factor

Only essential function of the stomach. A glycoprotein needed for vitamin b12 absorption (which is needed for DNA synthesis and hemoglobin synthesis).

Stomach secretions

Gastrin

Hydrochloric acid (HCI)

Mucus

Intrinsic factor

Plicae

folds

Metabolism

All chemical reactions that occur in the body.

Anabolism

Constructive metabolism; the process of building up larger molecules from smaller ones. Storing energy to use for later.

Glycogenesis

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy. Breaks down bonds and release ATP.

Glycogenolysis

Mass balance

Mass cannot be created or destroyed - only transformed.

Amylose

Non branches linear part of starch

Amylopectin

Branched part of starch.

Cellulose

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms. Humans cannot digest it. Fiber.

non polar covalent bond

The bonding electrons are shared equally by the bonded atoms, resulting in a balanced distribution of electrical charge.

Polar covalent bond

A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally.

Non-polar

Molecules will usually be hydrophic.

Polar

Molecules will often have bonds with oxygen or nitrogen and will usually be hydrophilic.

Passive transport

Requires NO energy, Movement of molecules from high to low concentration, Moves with the concentration gradient

Includes:

Simple diffusion

Facilitated diffusion channel

Facilitated diffusion carrier