Anatomy II Exam 1

releasing hormone

hypothalamus, tells pituitary to release

inhibiting hormone

hypothalamus, tells pituitary to stop

ADH (vasopressin)

hypothalamus (post pit), conserve water, constrict blood vessels, raise BP

Oxytocin

hypothalamus (post pit), promotes labor, minimizes blood loss after delivery, milk ejection, cuddle hormone

Growth Hormone (GH)

Anterior Pituitary, stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and tissues

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Anterior Pituitary, turns on adrenal cortex

Prolactin (lactogenic hormone)

Anterior Pituitary, lactation, decrease male LH/sex drive

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Anterior Pituitary, develop ovum, make ovaries secrete estrogen, develop male sperm, secrete testosterone

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

ovulation, stimulates release of progesterone, readies mammary glands for milk secretion

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Thyroid (follicular cells), controls metabolism

Thyroxine (T4)

Thyroid (follicular cells), controls metabolism

Calcitonin

Thyroid (extrafollicular cells), deposits calcium in bones

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Parathyroid, helps absorb Ca from diet, increases osteoclasts activity, tells kidneys to remove Phosphorus

Epinephrine

Adrenal Medulla, fight or flight

Norepinephrine

Adrenal Medulla, fight or flight

Aldosterone

Zone Glomerulosa of A.C., conserve sodium

Renin

Kidneys, released when blood volume is decreased

Cortisol

Zone Fasciculata of A.C., maintain glucose levels during stress

Sex Hormones

Zona Reticularis of A.C., supplement sex hormones, develop sex organs, stimulate female sex drive

Insulin

Beta Cells of pancreas, lowers blood glucose

Glucagon

Alpha Cells of pancreas, raise blood glucose

Somatostatin

Delta cells of pancreas, control glucagon and insulin

Thymosin

Thymus, increase production of T cells

Testosterone

Testes, secondary sex characteristics, sex drive

Melatonin

Pineal Gland, delay reproductive development, regulate circadian rhythm

Estrogen

Follicle of Ovary, secondary sex characteristics, thicken uterine lining

Progesterone

Corpus Luteum, brings blood supply to the uterus

Prostaglandins

Every cell of the body, allow you to know location of pain

Enterocrinin

Small intestine, tells intestines to release its secretions

Gastrin

Stomach, tells stomach to release its hormones and enzymes

Erythropoietin

Kidneys, erythrocyte formation

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

Heart, causes excretion of sodium, lowers blood pressure

Dwarfism

decreased Gh, short stature, administer GH

Gigantism

elevated GH before epiphyseal disc closure, extreme height, if causes by tumor resect or radiation

Acromegaly

Elevated GH after epiphyseal disc closure, widening of exremeties, if causes by tumor resect or radiation

Endemic Goiter

Lack of iodine to produce T4 and TSH increases, enlargement of thyroid due to follicular cells enlarging to produce more T4, replace salt and maybe T4

Exophthalmic Goiter

elevated T3 and T4, protruding eyes and high metabolism, antithyroid drugs

Graves Disease

antibodies look like TSH so hyperthyroidism, autoimmune excitable and nervous, high metabolism, radioactive iodine, beta-blockers or antithyroid medication

Myxedema

Hypothyroidism, low BMR and swelling due to accumulation of mucus, replace T4

Cretinism

Hypothyroidism in infancy, stunted growth and mental retardation, replace T4

Hypoparathyroidism

Low PTH, drop in calcium and increase in phosphorus, muscle cramps, cardiac arrhythmia, Calcium and Vitamin D

Hyperparathyroidism

High PTH, increased calcium levels could cause kidney stones and osteoporosis, resect tumor or if secondary cause restore calcium levels

Cushings disease

overproduction of ACTH causing overproduction of cortisol, moon face and buffalo hump, resect tumor or dc steroid drugs

Addisons Disease

decreased sodium and increase potassium due to low aldosterone/cortisol, bronzing of skin-melanin deposits and polyuria, salt diet and cortisol

Type 1 Diabetes

low insulin, autoimmune, insulin

Type 2 Diabetes

normal insulin, obesity, oral hyperglycemics and diet and exercise

diabetes insipidus

decrease of ADH, dry skin frequent urination, replace ADH

Adrenogenital syndrome

increase in sex hormones usually testosterone because decrease in enzyme to make it, enlarged penis and premature sex characteristics, female small breast deep voice and enlarged clitoris, cortisol or estrogen

Hyperinsulinism

increase in insulin, hypoglycemia usually due to tumor on beta cells, resect tumor

hyperlipidemia

estrogen therapy, birth control pills or hyperthyroidism, increase cholesterol with yell skin deposits, decrease fats in diet or remove drugs

anorexia nervose

override of hypothalamus releasing hormones, 25% loss of body weight, antidepressants or try to increase weight

aldosteronism

increase in aldosterone, increases sodium and decreases potassium can lead to HTN and CHF, decrease sodium intake

Hypogondatropic hypogonadism

decrease in FSH, LH, or testosterone, female loss of meses and vaginal atrophy, men impotence, supplement hormone

Thyroiditis

hypothyroidism, thyroid replaced by lymphocytes, autoimmune, antibodies may destroy thyroid, replace thyroid hormone

hematocrit

% of rbc in blood

Men 40-54% Women 37-47%

high: polycythemia, low: anemia

hemoglobin

oxygen carrying pigment in rbcs

Men: 14-18 g/100ml

Women: 12-16 g/100 ml

High: polycythemia, CHF, high altitudes

Low: anemia, pregnancy, hemorrhage

RBC

Men: 4.7-6.1 million/mm^3

Women: 12-16 million/mm^3

High: dehydration. diarrhea

Low: anemia, leukemia, hemorrhage

WBC

5,000-10,000

High: bacterial infections, leukemia

Low: viral infections

Platelet count

150,000-350,000 mm^3

High: polycythemia and some anemias

Low: acute leukemia, aplastic anemia

Neutrophils

54-62%

High: bacterial infections and certain leukemias

Low: viral infections

Lymphocytes

25-33%

High: viral infections and certain leukemias

Low: low production, destructions

Monocytes

3-9%

High: some viruses, chronic infection

Eosinophils

1-3%

High: allergies, parasites

Basophils

< 1% High: hypothyroidism, polycythemia, allergies

nervous

controls body through electrical impulses delivered over neurons, fast acting and short lived

endocrine

affects bodily activities by releasing hormones into blood, longer lasting effect

exocrine

secretes outside of self

endocrine glands

secretes into extrafollicular space, into bloodstream

paracrine

affects its neighbors

autocrine

affects itself

hormones

maintain homeostasis by changing physiological activities of cells, stimulates changes in certain cells called target cells, affect the activities of all the cells of the body

2 classes of hormones

Steroids

Proteins, Peptides, Glycoproteins, Animes

Steroids

function by entering a target cell and binding to a receptor protein in the nucleus, it then activates specific genes → mRNA which contains coded information for the synthesis of proteins → often enzymes

Proteins, Peptides, Glycoproteins, Animes

1). Hormone (1st messenger) attaches to a specific receptor site on the plasma membrane of a target cell

2). This attachment increases activity of adenylate cyclase (enzyme) in plasma membrane

3). In the presence of the enzyme, ATP-›cyclic AMP.

4). Cyclic AMP diffuses throughout the cell and acts as a 2nd messenger by activating another set of enzymes called protein kinases.

5). Protein kinases alter substrate from inactive forms into active forms. This, in turn, causes cellular changes. i.e. Epinephrine -> CAMP -› increase activity of an enzyme that breaks down glycogen.

6). Another enzyme (phosphodiesterase) inactivates cyclic AMP.

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Thus target cells attract only specific hormones to the receptor sites of their membranes as hormones circulate through the blood. Many second messenger molecules can be activated by a few hormone-receptor complexes. Therefore, cells are very sensitive to changes in the concentrations of non-steroid hormones because of rapid amplification.

Control of Hormones

negative feedback system

positive feedback systems

nervous control

chief cells

oxyphil cells

5 reproductive hormones

RH

FSH

LH

Estrogen-follicle

Progesterone-corpus luteum

Function of intercellular fluid

take the cells food and remove waste

Blood comp

55% plasma

Function of blood

transportation

regulation

protection

Hematopoiesis

process by which blood cells are formed

Hemocytoblasts (Stem Cells)

immature cells that are capable of developing into mature blood cells

Erthrocytes

Red blood cells

\-biconcave discs

\-lack a nucleus

\-lack mitochondria

oxyhemoglobin

bright red

deoxyhemoglobin

dark red (blue)

hypoxia

deficiency of O2

cyanosis

skin appears to be blue due to a high concentration of deoxyhemoglobin

function of erythrocytes

combines with O2 and Co2 and transport them through blood vessels, as erythrocyte passes through the lungs, each of the 4 iron atoms in the hemoglobin molecule combines with a molecule of O2

Erythropoietin

circulates through the blood to the red bone marrow

RBC men vs women

higher in men due to high metabolism, lower in women due to mentration

leukocytes

white blood cells

can squeeze between the cells of capillary walls and enter tissue space outside the circulatory system

Granular leukocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

Agranular leukocytes

lymphocytes

monocytes

neutrophils

first responders

increase during bacterial infections, secrete prostaglandins-pain

eosinophils

detoxify foreign proteins, increases in allergic reactions and parasitic infections

basophils

contain heparin and histamine, cause an increase in permeability of blood vessels causing the inflammatory response

lymphocytes

immunity-T lymphocytes-cell mediated

immunity-B lymphocytes- antibodies

monocytes

cleaner, become macrophages when they leave circulatory system

largest of phagocytic cells

thrombocytes

platelets

fragments of large, multinucleated bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes

initiate a chain of reactions that result in blood clotting

release serotonin which causes restriction of smooth muscle of blood vessels decreasing blood flow