Psychology Modules: Operant Conditioning, Observational Learning, and Sensation & Perception

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key definitions, theories, neural structures, and psychological processes from Modules 6, 8, and 10.

Law of Effect

Principle formulated by Edward Thorndike stating that behaviors producing a positive outcome are repeated, while behaviors leading to a negative outcome will not be repeated.

Trial-and-Error Learning

A learning process of making responses randomly until a solution is found, exemplified by cats escaping a puzzle box faster with each trial until they knew exactly what to do.

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning defined by B.F. Skinner in which organisms learn to associate their voluntary behavior with consequences.

Stimulus (Antecedent)

Whatever stimulus or event occurs immediately before a behavior is displayed.

Response (Behavior)

The voluntary action or behavior performed by an organism.

Consequence

The outcome or result that follows a behavioral response.

Positive Reinforcement (PR)

A behavioral contingency in which something good is given or added, causing the behavior to increase.

Negative Reinforcement (NR)

A behavioral contingency in which something bad is removed or taken away, causing the behavior to increase.

Positive Punishment (PP)

A behavioral contingency in which something bad is given or added, causing the behavior to decrease.

Negative Punishment (NP)

A behavioral contingency in which something good is taken away, causing the behavior to decrease.

Primary Reinforcers (Unconditioned)

Stimuli with innate reinforcing qualities whose value does not have to be learned, such as food, water, temperature, and sex.

Secondary Reinforcers (Conditioned)

Stimuli that have no inherent value and whose reinforcing value must be learned, such as praise, money, grades, stickers, and points.

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

An antecedent stimulus that signals when reinforcement will or will not occur.

Stimulus Control

The phenomenon where an antecedent gains control over a behavior because it has been consistently linked to that behavior in the past.

Generalization

The occurrence of an established behavior in the presence of similar, novel stimuli.

Discrimination

The process of reinforcing a behavior when a specific antecedent is present and only when it is present.

Continuous Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule where an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior; it represents the quickest way to teach a behavior.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after a predictable, set number of responses.

Variable Ratio (VR)

A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable, changing number of responses.

Fixed Interval (FI)

A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after predictable, set time intervals.

Variable Interval (VI)

A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after unpredictable, changing time intervals.

Shaping

The process of molding a new behavior by reinforcing successive approximations toward the target behavior.

Prompting

A stimulus added to a situation to increase the likelihood that the desirable response will be made when needed.

Fading

The gradual removal of prompts once the desired behavior continues in the presence of the discriminative stimulus (SD).

Extinction (Operant Conditioning)

The decline in responding when a behavior that has been performed, said, or thought has not been reinforced for some time.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished response, showing that extinction is not simply forgetting and that the learning remains accessible.

Time-out

A punishment procedure where an individual is removed from an activity because they are engaging in undesirable or problem behavior.

Response Cost

A type of negative punishment in which a specific amount of an existing reinforcer is removed when an undesirable behavior occurs.

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs by watching others and their consequences without requiring firsthand experience before deciding whether to imitate.

Enactive Learning

Learning by doing through direct, firsthand experience with a behavior and experiencing its direct results.

Imitation

Behaving in a way that resembles or duplicates another person's behavior when that behavior is novel and not how one usually acts.

Generalized Imitation

The tendency to imitate any observed behavior, not solely behaviors that have received reinforcement.

Deferred Imitation

Observing a model but delaying the display of learned behavior until a later time, demonstrating that learning can happen without immediate performance.

Vicarious Reinforcement

A component of observational learning where an observer increases their behavior after seeing a model receive positive consequences.

Vicarious Punishment

A component of observational learning where an observer decreases their behavior after seeing a model receive negative consequences.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The division of the nervous system consisting of the brain (the primary processing center) and the spinal cord (the information highway).

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All components of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord that handle input and output.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system controlling voluntary movement of skeletal muscles and carrying sensory information to the CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system regulating internal organs (such as the bladder, stomach, and heart) and involuntary functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system activated during intense arousal that provides the strength to fight or flee (fight-or-flight).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system responsible for calming the body down.

Dendrites

The receiving end structures of a neuron that take in incoming signals.

Soma & Nucleus

The central body of a neuron that houses all nutrients necessary to keep the cell healthy.

Axon

The specialized fiber of a neuron that sends electrical signals away from the cell body.

Myelin Sheath

An insulating layer encasing the axon that increases neural processing speed.

Axon Terminals

The end points of a neuron where electrical impulses are converted into chemical messages.

Resting Potential

The polarized state of a neuron ready to fire, characterized by a negative interior ($\text{-70\,mV}$) and positive exterior.

Threshold

The specific electrical level ($\text{-55\,mV}$) that a neuron must reach from its resting state ($\text{-70\,mV}$) in order to fire an action potential.

Depolarization

The phase of the action potential where ion-gated channels open to let positively charged sodium ($\text{Na}^+$) enter, shifting polarity to positive inside and negative outside.

Repolarization

The resetting phase where $\text{Na}^+$ channels close, potassium ($\text{K}^+$) channels open, and $\text{K}^+$ exits, restoring the negative charge inside the neuron.

Absolute Refractory Period

The recovery phase during which a neuron absolutely cannot fire another action potential.

Relative Refractory Period

The recovery phase where a neuron can fire again, but requires a greater than normal level of stimulation to do so.

Reuptake

The process by which the presynaptic neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters from the synaptic space for future use.

Enzymatic Degradation

The breakdown mechanism where specialized enzymes destroy excess neurotransmitters remaining in the synaptic space.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in controlling voluntary movements and operating the brain's reward system.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter responsible for maintaining a stable mood; low levels are associated with depression.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that reduce pain and create sensations of calm and happiness.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and triggering the fight-or-flight response.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms the brain, relieving anxiety and panic.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter linked to concentration, focus, learning, and memory.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of physical stimulus energy needed to produce a sensation $50\%$ of the time.

Difference Threshold

The smallest change or difference in stimulation detectable $50\%$ of the time.

Rods

Retinal photoreceptor cells ($120\text{ million}$ total, located exclusively in the retina) specialized for night vision.

Cones

Photoreceptor cells ($8\text{ million}$ total, located in the fovea and retina) responsible for daylight vision and color perception.

Mechanoreceptors

Cutaneous receptor cells in the skin sensitive to tactile stimuli such as shape, vibration, grooves, and movement.

Thermoreceptors

Receptors in the skin specialized to detect temperature changes (hot and cold).

Nociceptors

Specialized sensory receptors that detect pain.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition where prejudices, beliefs, biases, experiences, and moods influence how raw sensory stimuli are interpreted.

Prägnanz

Also known as the law of good figure or simplicity, a Gestalt principle stating that objects are perceived in the simplest possible form.

Medulla

A hindbrain structure that regulates essential autonomic functions including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Pons

Brain structure that connects the cerebellum and medulla, functioning to transfer messages between different parts of the brain and the spinal cord.

Reticular Formation

A brain structure dedicated to controlling levels of alertness and attention.

Cerebellum

A brain structure responsible for balance, muscle coordination, acquired reflexes, and learning simple responses.

Thalamus

The major sensory relay center of the brain that routes input for all senses except smell.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure that oversees survival drives, regulates body temperature, and controls the autonomic nervous system.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure that evaluates incoming sensory information to determine emotional importance.

Hippocampus

A brain structure vital for forming spatial memories as well as new memories about facts and events.

Frontal Lobe

The cerebral lobe containing the motor cortex for voluntary movement, involved in emotion, planning, creativity, and initiative.

Parietal Lobe

The cerebral lobe containing the somatosensory cortex that receives tactile input regarding pressure, pain, touch, and temperature.

Occipital Lobe

The cerebral lobe containing the visual cortex, responsible for receiving and processing all visual signals from the eyes.

Temporal Lobe

The cerebral lobe housing the auditory cortex, functioning in memory, perception, emotion, and sound processing.

Primary Appraisal

The initial cognitive assessment of the emotional significance of an event, localized within the amygdala.

Secondary Appraisal

The cognitive process of deciding how to respond or act, localized within the prefrontal cortex.