States of Consciousness, Learning, and Memory

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering States of Consciousness, Learning, and Memory.

What is consciousness, and how does it present across different states?

Consciousness is an organism's awareness of its own surroundings. States of consciousness exist on a continuum from sleep to wakefulness.

What are circadian rhythms, and how are they regulated and influenced?

Circadian rhythms are biological/body rhythms that occur on a $24\text{-hour}$ cycle. They are regulated by melatonin released from the pineal gland and are affected by light and life experiences (e.g., work, stress).

What evolutionary, cognitive, and biological functions does sleep serve?

Evolutionary functions include conservation (shoring up energy for procreation) and protection (keeping us out of harm's way). Cognitive functions include restoring/rebuilding fading memories and bolstering creative thinking. Biological functions include restoring brain tissue, preserving neural pathways, and prompting the pituitary gland to release growth hormones during sleep.

What stage characteristics are detailed in this sleep stage summary table?

nREM1 is the lightest state (transitional 'drifting off' with slowing heart rate and breathing); nREM2 is deep sleep with a relaxed body and sleep spindles; nREM3 is the deepest state with slowed body functions, sleepwalking, and bed wetting; REM is light sleep associated with dreams.

What is REM sleep, and why is it described as paradoxical sleep?

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep features relaxed muscles alongside active brain and body processes, making it paradoxical. Rapid eye movements signal the start of a dream.

What are the three theories of dreaming presented, along with their respective weaknesses?

1. Psychoanalysis: Dreams are disguised symbols of repressed desires and anxieties (manifest vs. latent content, wish fulfillment); Weakness: Lacks scientific support. 2. Information Processing: Dreams sift, sort, and fix the day's experiences in memory; Weakness: Why do we dream about events never experienced? 3. Activation Synthesis: Brain engages in random neural activity and dreams make sense of it; Weakness: Why do we experience meaningful dreams?

How do sleep cycles progress throughout the night, and how do sleep requirements change with age?

Sleep cycles recur every $90\text{ minutes}$ ($4\text{--}6$ cycles per night). Stage 3 gets shorter and disappears, while Stage 2 and REM get longer. Sleep duration requirements vary by age, decreasing from $12\text{--}17\text{ hours}$ in infancy to $7\text{--}8\text{ hours}$ in adulthood.

What is sleep debt, and what effects stem from sleep loss?

Sleep debt is the cumulative effect of not getting enough sleep over a $2\text{-week}$ tally. Effects of sleep loss include diminished productivity, irritability, weight gain, illness, and REM rebound.

What is the difference between dyssomnias and parasomnias?

Dyssomnias affect the amount, timing, and quality of sleep (e.g., Insomnia, Narcolepsy, Sleep apnea). Parasomnias are sleep disturbances during sleep (e.g., Nightmares, Night terrors, Sleepwalking/talking).

How is learning defined in psychology, and what forms can it take?

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from practice or experience. It includes habits (e.g., brushing teeth), skills (e.g., playing piano), knowledge (facts), and attitudes (likes, dislikes, prejudice).

What is associative learning, and what is its core outcome?

Associative learning involves making connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment. It is based on behaviorism, and conditioning is the outcome of associative learning.

What are the five essential terms and definitions in classical conditioning?

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Elicits a response before conditioning. Unconditioned Response (UCR): Unlearned (automatic) reaction to the UCS. Neutral Stimulus (NS): Does not elicit a response before conditioning. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Elicits a response after repeated pairings with UCS (formerly the NS). Conditioned Response (CR): Learned reaction to a CS.

How does the classical conditioning process shown in this diagram transform a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus?

Before conditioning, food (UCS) produces salivation (UCR) while the tuning fork (NS) produces no salivation. During conditioning, the tuning fork (NS) is repeatedly paired with food (UCS). After conditioning, the tuning fork becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) that elicits salivation as a Conditioned Response (CR).

What stages of classical conditioning are depicted in this strength of CR graph?

The graph depicts Acquisition (pairing CS + US), Extinction (presenting CS alone causing CR strength to decay), a Pause, Spontaneous Recovery of CR upon presenting CS again, followed by further Extinction (CS alone).

What are stimulus generalization and discrimination in classical conditioning?

Generalization is responding to a stimulus that is similar to the CS in the same way (e.g., Little Albert). Discrimination is distinguishing between a CS and other non-conditioned stimuli (e.g., fearing a dog, but not a cat).

How does classical conditioning differ from operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning involves associations between two stimuli (CS and UCS) producing automatic responses. Operant conditioning involves associations between a behavior and a consequence, operating on the environment based on the Law of Effect.

What is shaping, and what apparatus did B. F. Skinner use?

Shaping is reinforcement given through a series of successively improved steps leading to a desired response. B. F. Skinner studied this using a Skinner Box (operant chamber).

According to this operant conditioning overview table, how are reinforcement and punishment defined by positive and negative applications?

Reinforcement aims to strengthen behavior: Positive reinforcement adds a good stimulus, while Negative reinforcement removes a bad stimulus. Punishment aims to weaken behavior: Positive punishment adds a bad stimulus, while Negative punishment removes a good stimulus.

What are primary vs. secondary reinforcers and continuous vs. partial reinforcement?

Primary reinforcers are innately reinforcing stimuli (e.g., food or drink). Conditioned (secondary) reinforcers are learned and gain power through associations with a primary reinforcer. Continuous reinforcement reinforces a response each time it occurs, whereas partial reinforcement reinforces a response only part of the time.

What are the four schedules of partial reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a predetermined set number of responses. Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement occurs unpredictably after a varying number of responses. Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a predetermined fixed amount of time has elapsed. Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement occurs unpredictably after varying intervals of time.

What is observational learning, and what four cognitive processes does modeling require?

Observational learning is learning by watching and imitating others through modeling. Its four core processes are Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation, which are influenced by vicarious reinforcement and punishment.

What was the design and outcome of Albert Bandura's 1961 Bobo Doll Study?

Two groups of children (no exposure vs. exposure) were studied after an adult kicked, hit, and yelled at a 'Bobo Doll'. Children exposed to the model imitated the aggressive behaviors.

What are prosocial and antisocial behaviors in observational learning?

Antisocial behaviors learned via observation include aggression, desensitization, and prejudice. Prosocial behaviors include helping, encouragement, and morality. We repeat what we observe in family, neighborhood, and media.

What is memory, and what are the three steps of the information-processing model?

Memory is learning that has persisted over time; it is adaptive and a constructive process. The information-processing model consists of Encoding (input), Storage (retaining info), and Retrieval (accessing stored info).

What is the difference between automatic and effortful processing, and what are the three encoding types?

Automatic processing occurs unconsciously for space, time, frequency, and well-learned info. Effortful processing requires conscious rehearsal or spaced/distributed practice. Encoding types include Visual (things seen), Acoustic (things heard), and Semantic (things that have meaning).

What is the self-reference effect in memory encoding?

The self-reference effect is the finding that individuals demonstrate better memory retention for information that is personally relevant.

How does information move through the Atkinson-Shiffrin 3-stage memory model shown in this diagram?

Sensory input enters Sensory memory. Selected information passes to Short-term memory (STM), where Rehearsal maintains it or transfers it to Long-term memory (LTM). Information not transferred at any stage is lost.

What are the capacity and duration parameters for Sensory memory, STM, and LTM shown in this summary table?

Sensory memory has large capacity and fleeting duration. Short-term memory (STM) has a capacity of $7 \pm 2$ items (increased by Chunking) and duration of $\approx 20\text{ seconds}$ (increased by Rehearsal). Long-term memory (LTM) has limitless capacity and relatively permanent duration.

What are the subcategories of explicit and implicit long-term memory?

Explicit (declarative, conscious) memory includes Episodic memory (life experiences) and Semantic memory (meaning). Implicit (nondeclarative, unconscious) memory includes Procedural memory (skills) and Emotional conditioning (classically conditioned).

How do recall, recognition, and relearning differ in memory retrieval?

Recall is accessing stored information without cues (e.g., short answer questions). Recognition is identifying stored information with cues (e.g., multiple-choice questions). Relearning is learning previously stored information again.

What are the five causes or problems associated with forgetting from LTM?

1. Transience: Storage decays over time. 2. Absent-mindedness: Temporary lapses in attention. 3. Blocking: Information is temporarily blocked. 4. Bias: Memories are distorted. 5. Persistence: Inability to forget unwanted memories.

What techniques and strategies help enhance memory retention?

Memory enhancement techniques include Chunking, Rehearsal, Elaborative rehearsal (linking new info to existing info), Mnemonics (e.g., ROYGBIV, PEMDAS), Spaced/Distributed practice, Self-reference effect, and Good health (sleep, diet, exercise, stress reduction).