The great political divergence

topic

The Chinese civil service examination (CSE) system and its role in the unusual longevity of Chinese imperial rule. Huang and Yang examine why Chinese rulers stayed in power longer than European ones (about 12 years longer on average, 1000-1800) even though China had none of the executive constraints (parliaments, power-sharing) that scholars credit for European stability.

Central Argument

The CSE helped keep emperors in power by limiting the influence of aristocrats and wealth holders, the group most likely to threaten the throne. It opened bureaucratic access to commoners, which weakened any aristocracy with power independent of the crown. At the top level, it also kept wealthy families at arm’s length from the emperor. They argue the CSE strengthened the emperor rather than constraining him, which challenges the Enlightenment view (Montesquieu, Rousseau) that it was a check on the crown. Europe and China both reached political stability, but by opposite routes: power-sharing in Europe, and concentrated power in the crown in China.

Evidence and Methodology: Ruler duration and exit data

Ruler tenure and the probability of being deposed in China (221 BCE-1911) compared with Western Europe (Figure 1). Depositions fell sharply after the Song dynasty, mostly because intra-elite conflict declined.

Evidence and Methodology: family wealth analysis

• Candidate rankings at each of the three exam stages are tested against family wealth (number of wives as a proxy for concubinage and wealth) and family political background (father’s rank).

Evidence and Methodology: last stage bias

• At the two anonymized stages (provincial and metropolitan), wealth and family background had little effect. At the final, non-anonymized Palace Examination, presided over by the emperor, wealth had a negative effect on ranking, and wealthy candidates with powerful fathers were penalized most.

Historical Context: Sui, Tang, and Song

• The CSE was established under the Sui (around 605) and expanded under the Tang and Song. Empress Wu Zetian (690-705) expanded it to break aristocratic power, moved the capital, and opened the exam to nearly all male citizens.

Historical Context: Tang-Song transition

After the Song, depositions of emperors almost disappeared. The CSE lasted until its abolition in 1905.

Historical Context: European aristocracy

•  European rulers were often deposed by nobles and responded by creating power-sharing arrangements like parliaments.

Key Concepts: Chinese anomaly vs. European exceptionalism

• Huang and Yang argue that China and Europe both achieved political stability by opposite routes: Chinese emperors lasted longer by using the civil service exam to weaken aristocrats and concentrate power in the crown, while European rulers stabilized by sharing power through institutions like parliaments.

Key Concepts: Civil service examination (CSE)

The three-stage exam (Provincial, Metropolitan, Palace) used to recruit officials.

Key Concepts: Access and control functions

• Access means widening political entry to commoners. Control means limiting the power of wealth holders and aristocrats.

Key Concepts: Intra-elite conflict

• The main cause of instability in authoritarian regimes (Svolik), more than popular rebellions.

Key Concepts: Selectorate theory

• Enlarging the pool of eligible officials raises the cost of defecting for existing elites.

Key Concepts: Anonymity vs. emperor discretion

Anonymous lower stages promoted mobility, while the non-anonymous Palace Exam let the emperor control top appointments.

Key Concepts: Absolutism

• Concentrated power in the crown, achieved by weakening the aristocracy.