Althusser's structuralist Marxism

• While humanistic Marxists see humans as c___ b___, able to make history through their c___ a___, for structuralist Marxists, it is not people's a___ but s___ s___ that really shape h____ and these are the proper subject of s___ enquiry.

• What is the task of the sociologist ?

• The most important structuralist Marxist thinker is L___ A___ (1918-90), a leading i____ of the F__ Communist Party.

• Althusser's version of Marxism rejects what 2 things?

• While humanistic Marxists see humans as creative beings, able to make history through their conscious actions, for structuralist Marxists, it is not people's actions but social structures that really shape history and these are the proper subject of scientific enquiry.

• The task of the sociologist is to reveal how these structures work.

• The most important structuralist Marxist thinker is Louis Althusser (1918-90, a leading intellectual of the French Communist Party.

• Althusser's version of Marxism rejects both economic determinism AND humanism.

Althusser rejects the base-superstructure model

• what does Marx’s base-superstructure model say?

• Changes or contradictions in the e___ b___ cause changes in the s___, eventually leading to the downfall of capitalism.

Althusser rejects this model in favour of a more complex one, which C___ calls 's____ d___'.

In this model, capitalist society has three structures or levels - what are these

• Instead of the base-superstructure model where the e____ level determines everything about the other two levels, in Althusser's model, the p___ and i___ levels have r___ a___ or p___ i___ from the economic level.

• The political and ideological levels are not a mere r____ of the e___ level, instead as the e____ affects the g__ and i____, but the g____ and i___ can also affect the e___.

• Instead of a o___-way causality, we have t___-way causality

Althusser rejects the base-superstructure model

• Marx’s base-superstructure model says that the economic base (money and production) determines the superstructure (political institutions, laws, education, and ideology).

• Changes or contradictions in the economic base cause changes in the superstructure, eventually leading to the downfall of capitalism.

Althusser rejects this model in favour of a more complex one, which Craib calls 'structural determinism'. (3 way structures society)

In this model, capitalist society has three structures or levels:

• The economic level, comprising all those activities that involve producing something in order to satisfy a need.

• The political level, comprising all forms of organisation.

• The ideological level, involving the ways that people see themselves and their world.

• Instead of the base-superstructure model where the economic level determines everything about the other two levels, in Althusser's model, the political and ideological levels have relative autonomy or partial independence from the economic level.

• The political and ideological levels are not a mere reflection of the economic level, instead as the economy affects the government and ideas, but the government and ideas can also affect the economy.

• Instead of a one-way causality, we have two-way causality

Ideological and repressive state apparatuses

• Although the economic level dominates in capitalism, the political and ideological levels perform f____ functions. For example, if capitalism is to continue, future workers must be socialised into i___ ,

• In Althusser's model, the state performs p____ and i___ functions that ensure the reproduction of capitalism.

• He divides the state into two 'apparatuses : - what are these, examples and how they main the power of the bourgeoisie ?

• How is this similar to Gramsci?

Ideological and repressive state apparatuses

• Although the economic level dominates in capitalism, the political and ideological levels perform fundamental functions. For example, if capitalism is to continue, future workers must be socialised into ideologies ,

In Althusser's model, the state performs political and ideological functions that ensure the reproduction of capitalism.

He divides the state into two 'apparatuses :

• The repressive state apparatuses (RSAs) These are the 'armed bodies of men' - the army, police, prisons and so on - that coerce the working class into complying with the will of the bourgeoisie with force . This is how Marxists have traditionally seen the state.

• The ideological state apparatuses (ISAs) These include the media, the education system, the family, reformist political parties, trade unions and other institutions. ISAs ideologically manipulate the working class into accepting capitalism as legitimate. This is a much wider definition of the state than the traditional Marxist view.

This is similar to Gramsci's distinction between coercion (the RSAs) and consent (the ISAs) as different ways of securing the dominance of the bourgeoisie.

Althusser's criticisms of humanistic marxism

• For structuralist Marxists, what is illusion and what is truth?

• As C____ (1992) puts it, society is a p___ t___, we are merely p___, and these u____ structures are the hidden p____ m___, d___ all our t____ and a___.

• Althusser is therefore dismissive of humanism, and humanistic Marxists such as Gramsci. Humanists believe what?+ example

• Althusser argues that we are not the f___ a____ that humanists think we are - our belief that we possess free will and choice is simply f____ c____ produced by the i____ state apparatuses. What is the example in education?

• In reality, we are merely products of s___ structures that determine everything about us, preparing us to fit into pre-existing p____ in the structure of capitalism.

Althusser's criticisms of humanistic marxism

• For structuralist Marxists, our sense of free will, choice and creativity is an illusion. The truth is that everything about us is the product of underlying social structures.

• As Craib (1992) puts it, society is a puppet theatre, we are merely puppets, and these unseen structures are the hidden puppet master, determining all our thoughts and actions.

• Althusser is therefore dismissive of humanism, and humanistic Marxists such as Gramsci. Humanists believ ethat people can use their creativity, reason and free will to change society. For example, humanistic Marxists believe that a socialist revolution will come about as a result of the working class actively developing class consciousness and consciously choosing to overthrow capitalism.

• Althusser argues that we are not the free agents that humanists think we are - our belief that we possess free will and choice is simply false consciousness produced by the ideological state apparatuses. For example, we may believe that education gives us the chance to achieve what we are capable of, but this is an illusion - the 'myth of meritocracy'.

• In reality, we are merely products of social structures that determine everything about us, preparing us to fit into pre-existing positions in the structure of capitalism.

Althusser's criticisms of humanistic marxism

• Althusser's criticisms of humanistic marxism is similar to P__' idea of s___-r____, where society s___ individuals to slot into pre-existing roles that will meet society's needs.

• Therefore, in Althusser's view, socialism/a revolution will not come about how? - but will come about because of a c____ of capitalism resulting from what Althusser calls over-determination: what does this mean

Althusser's criticisms of humanistic marxism

• Althusser's criticisms of humanistic marxism is similar to Parsons' idea of status-roles, where society socialises individuals to slot into pre-existing roles that will meet society's needs.

• Therefore, in Althusser's view, socialism/a revolution will not come about because of a change in consciousness - as humanistic Marxists argue - but will come about because of a crisis of capitalism resulting from what Althusser calls over-determination: the contradictions in the three structures that occur relatively independently of each other, resulting in the collapse of the system as a whole.

Evaluation of Althusser and structural marxism - strengths

✓- In C____ view, Althusser ‘offers the most s_____ conception of s____ s____ available in the social sciences’.

• His s____ approach explains society as a c____ system of economic, political, and ideological levels that i____ with r_____ a____, giving a more d____ and n____ understanding of social order and change.

Evaluation of Althusser and structural marxism - strengths

✓- In Craib’s view, Althusser ‘offers the most sophisticated conception of social structure available in the social sciences’.

• His structuralist approach explains society as a complex system of economic, political, and ideological levels that interact with relative autonomy, giving a more detailed and nuanced understanding of social order and change.

Evaluation of Althusser and structural marxism - limitations

✘- For humanistic Marxists such as G____, this ‘scientific’ approach discourages p___ a___ because it focuses so much on the s____ factors—the economic, political, and ideological levels—that i___ seem p____ to change anything.

• By presenting society as largely determined by these s___, Althusser’s theory downplays h____ an____ and the role of the working class in a____ challenging capitalism, which could make people feel that r____ or a____ is f___.

• This is why critics argue it is less useful for i____ p___ p____ a___.

✘- Similarly, the Marxist historian, E__. T____ (1978), criticises Althusser for ignoring the fact that it is the a___ s___ of the w___ class that can change society.

• He accuses Althusser of elitism - how?

Evaluation of Althusser and structural marxism - limitations

✘- For humanistic Marxists such as Gouldner, this ‘scientific’ approach discourages political activism because it focuses so much on the structural factors—the economic, political, and ideological levels—that individuals seem powerless to change anything.

• By presenting society as largely determined by these big big structures, Althusser’s theory downplays human agency and the role of the working class in actively challenging capitalism, which could make people feel that resistance or activism is futile.

• This is why critics argue it is less useful for inspiring practical political action.

✘- Similarly, the Marxist historian, E.P. Thompson (1978), criticises Althusser for ignoring the fact that it is the active struggles of the working class that can change society.

• He accuses Althusser of elitism - the belief that the Communist Party knows what is best for the workers, who should therefore blindly follow the Party’s lead.