Post WWII/1950-present - The changing status of amateur/pro performers and Elite female performers

Development of modern-day Association Football (wages)

Football became Britain's major sporting activity as the C20 progressed, with attendance and gate receipts soaring. Wages did not reflect increased income until 2nd half of C20 - due to setting of max wage (1900: £4/w). Professional Footballers' Association chairman Hill fought for the abolition of max wage 1961 - Johnny Hayes first £100/week footballer.

Bosman Ruling

A European Court of Justice decision made on 15th December 1995 concerning freedom of movement for workers. It effectively allowed footballers within the EU to move at the end of their contract to another club without a transfer fee being paid.

Development of modern-day lawn tennis

Spread around world during 20th century with tournaments in USA, France, Australia. Professional tournaments established in 1920 with high rewards, however rest of tennis (including majors) were strictly amateur until 1968 - pros excluded. 1968: the abandonment of the distinction between amateur and professional - open era.

Development of modern-day athletics (Immediate post WWII period)

Interest in athletics stimulated during London 1948 Olympics. 'Trust funds' established - enabled athletes to safeguard their eligibility to partake in amateur comps but still receive financial rewards. GBs for athletics kept control of sport by insisting that it should authorise all payments. Funding day-to-day living expenses were allowed and balance became available for retirement. Enabled athletes to go around world and compete, with both appearance and prize money.

Development of modern day athletics (end of C20-21)

No trust funds - payments made directly to athletes/agents within rules laid down by International Association of Athletics Federations. IAAF established and organised major athletic comps for lots of money e.g. IAAF Diamond League 2010: in USA, Europe, Middle East and Asia - large spectator numbers to generate incomes.

1969 (football)

Women's Football Association (WFA) formed to promote the women's game at a national level, including development of league structures.

1991 (football)

WFA set up the Women's Premier League

2004 (football)

BBC broadcast Women's FA Cup final to an audience of >2million

2012 (football)

Team GB women's team participated for the first time at the London Olympics.

Socio-cultural factors influencing emergence of elite female footballers

Equal opportunities, Increased media coverage, More female role models, More provision via school PE programmes, Increased approval via the FA, more clubs forming, More free time.

Equal opportunities (football)

Sex Discrimination Act led to less sexual discrimination in sport on the basis of gender. The War effort from women also led to the breaking down of stereotypes about physicality of women.

Increased media coverage of women's football

BT Sport provides live coverage of Women's Super League; women's football part of EA Sports FIFA 16 Game.

Increased approval via the FA

Women's national team supported by FA, FA Cup Final held at Wembley for the first time in 2015.

More free time (football)

As the traditional domestic responsibility role has decreased.

Factors affecting the emergence of elite female officials in football

end of C20: very limited number of elite female officials progressing through to the Football League. First female ever to officiate in the Football and then Premier League (as an assistant ref) was Wendy Toms - progress following on has been slow. However number of qualified female refs increased from 636 in 2008 to 1035 in 2012 (Game Changer FA plan).

Barriers within women refereeing elite football

Physical/psychological intimidation (hostile attitudes from male players), lack of adherence to FA Respect protocol, personal factors (allegations of sexism in football), organisational factors (lack of support within system for female refs). lack of female role models.

FA National Referee Strategy (NRS)

Included new frameworks and structures 2016/17 e.g. separate classifications for men's and women's football and a specific focus on female ref recruitment and retention. County FAs were set targets on female ref recruitment and retention.

WTA role in emergence of elite female tennis players

Developed its own pro circuit in the late C20, eventually earning millions of pounds through earnings and sponsorship deals providing opportunities for women to play at a top level.

Billie Jean King

The first female athlete to earn £100,000 in a single year.

Chris Evert

Generated over $1,000,000 in career earnings by mid 1970s.

2015 (tennis)

More than 2500 elite players competed for $129m prize money at the 55 WTA events and four Grand Slams.

Emergence of elite female athletes

Treatment of women in athletics remained 'indifferent' through to late C20. Women were still excluded from a number events in the Olympics e.g. marathon not open to women until LA Olympics 1984. However stereotypes are being challenged, and comps e.g. Diamond League enable female athletes to earn millions.