Learn: ALS 2504 Unit 1

Merriam-Webster definition of 'bond'

An adhesive, cement, or glue; or a binding force, cause, or influence (such as emotional ties or shared obligations).

How were animals bonded to one's household?

Through taming, confinement, dependence for food and shelter, utilitarian functions (work, protection, pest control), and emotional companionship.

Definition of human-animal bond (Purdue Center for HAB)

A dynamic, mutually beneficial relationship between people and animals influenced by behaviors essential to the health and well-being of both.

Definition of 'companion animals' & species included

Animals kept primarily for company, protection, or pleasure. Includes dogs, cats, small mammals, horses, birds, reptiles, and fish.

Definition of 'pets'

An animal kept for pleasure, companionship, or emotional satisfaction rather than utility or financial gain.

Concept of the 'Three brains'

MacLean's Triune Brain theory proposing three evolutionary layers: the Reptilian complex (survival/instincts), Limbic system (emotions/social), and Neocortex (higher thinking/cognition).

Definition of Anthrozoology

The interdisciplinary study of human-animal interactions and relationships.

Definition of welfare according to Donald Broom (1996)

The state of an individual as regards its attempts to cope with its environment.

General/common definition of animal welfare

The physical, mental, and natural well-being of an animal, including its freedom from suffering, distress, and disease.

How can welfare be measured?

Through behavioral indicators (stereotypies, reactivity), physiological parameters (cortisol, heart rate), health/production metrics, and body condition.

What is Ethology?

The scientific study of animal behavior under natural conditions.

What is an ethogram?

A comprehensive catalog or inventory of discrete behaviors displayed by a particular animal species.

Define precocial species

Species born in an advanced state, capable of moving, seeing, and feeding shortly after birth (e.g., foals, chicks).

Define altricial species

Species born underdeveloped, blind, helpless, and requiring extensive parental care (e.g., puppies, kittens).

Who was Konrad Zacharias Lorenz?

Austrian zoologist/ethologist who won the Nobel Prize in 1973 for discovering filial imprinting in birds.

Who was Nikolaas (Niko) Tinbergen?

Dutch ethologist who shared the 1973 Nobel Prize and formulated the 'Four Whys' / four questions of ethology.

Who was Karl von Frisch?

Austrian ethologist who won the 1973 Nobel Prize for decoding the waggle dance communication of honeybees.

Define imprinting

A rapid phase-sensitive learning process where a young animal forms a social attachment to a specific object or organism.

Major characteristics of imprinting

Occurs during a strict critical/sensitive period, is irreversible, and influences future adult social and sexual preferences.

Define the Four 'Whys' (Tinbergen's 4 questions)

1) Function/Adaptation, 2) Causation/Mechanism, 3) Ontogeny/Development, 4) Phylogeny/Evolution.

Cat purring according to Tinbergen's Four Whys

Function: Solicits care/comfort; Causation: Neural oscillator driving laryngeal muscles; Ontogeny: Develops early in nursing kittens; Phylogeny: Conserved across Felidae species.

What is the 'waggle dance'?

A figure-eight dance performed by honeybees to communicate the direction and distance of a food source.

Define behavior

The observable actions or responses of an organism to internal or external stimuli.

List the most important types of behavior

Ingestive, elimination, sexual, maternal/paternal, social/agonistic, exploratory, shelter-seeking, epimeletic, allelomimetic.

Define epimeletic behavior

Care-giving or care-soliciting behavior (e.g., a mother grooming her offspring).

Define allelomimetic behavior

Group-synchronized behavior where individuals perform the same activity at the same time (e.g., flocking, schooling).

Generally speaking, when did domestication take place?

Approximately 10,000 to 30,000 years ago, starting with the dog before the advent of agriculture.

Definition of a 'domestic animal' (Clutton-Brock, 1989)

An animal bred in captivity and modified away from its wild ancestors for human use and benefit.

What are domesticated or cultivated species?

Species that have undergone genetic adaptation to living and breeding under human control and care.

Major three characteristics of domestication

Human control of breeding, genetic/morphological changes over generations, and adaptation to human environments.

Define taming

An environmental/behavioral modification during an individual animal's lifetime reducing fear of humans (not genetically inherited).

Is domestication a single generation process?

No, it is a multi-generational evolutionary process involving genetic changes over time.

Distinguish between domestication and taming

Domestication alters a population genetically across generations; taming alters a single individual's behavior through experience.

Define the pathways to domestication

Commensal pathway (animals attracted to human waste, e.g., dogs/cats), Prey pathway (hunting to herd management), Directed pathway (targeted capture for work/use).

Define the Domestication Syndrome

A set of phenotypic traits appearing during domestication, including floppy ears, spotted coats, reduced brain size, and paedomorphosis.

Major characteristics of animals susceptible to domestication

Flexible diet, rapid growth rate, willingness to breed in captivity, non-aggressive temperament, predictable social structure.

Favorable characteristics for domestication candidates

Gregarious social hierarchy, omnivorous/herbivorous diet, calm response to humans, early sexual maturity.

Unfavorable characteristics preventing domestication

Picky diet, aggressive nature, slow growth rate, panicky flight response, reluctance to breed in captivity.

What is 'the relaxation of natural selection'?

The reduction of natural selective pressures (predation, starvation) under human care, allowing novel traits to survive.

Discuss the results of domestication

Morphological changes (coat, ears, size), increased reproductive output, reduced brain size, altered behavioral thresholds.

Define feralization

The process by which a domesticated species escapes human control and adapts to living and reproducing in the wild.

Relationship between brain and behavior

The brain processes internal and external stimuli and coordinates nervous and hormonal signals to execute physical behavior.

How does the brain communicate with the body to produce behavior?

Via electrical impulses along neurons and chemical messengers (neurotransmitters and hormones into the bloodstream).

What are hormones?

Chemical signaling molecules secreted by endocrine glands directly into the bloodstream to alter organ function and behavior.

How hormones affect animal physiology

They regulate metabolism, stress responses, sexual receptivity, growth, milk production, and circadian rhythms.

Theories explaining animal emotional states

James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, and Panksepp's Affective Neuroscience framework (basic emotional systems like SEEKING, FEAR, RAGE).

Define innate behavior

Inborn, genetically hardwired behavior performed correctly without prior experience or learning.

Define learned behavior

Behavior modified or acquired through trial, practice, conditioning, or environmental experience.

Characteristics of innate behavior

Stereotyped, instinctual, universal across a species, and performed fully formed on first exposure.

Define reflex and kinesis

Reflex: Rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus. Kinesis: Non-directional movement changing speed or turning rate in response to a stimulus.

Characteristics of learned behavior

Flexible, variable between individuals, adaptable to novel situations, and dependent on memory/practice.

Example of learned behavior in mammals

A dog performing tricks via operant conditioning, or a young mammal learning to open a specific food container.

Define basic behavioral categories (marking, reactivity, etc.)

Marking: Scent/visual boundary cues; Defensive: Ward off threats; Reactivity: Response intensity; Association: Social bonding; Seasonal: Migration/hibernation.

Define grooming and allogrooming

Grooming: Cleaning one's own body. Allogrooming: Grooming another individual to maintain social bonds and hygiene.

Define abnormal behavior

Behavior that deviates in frequency, pattern, or context from what is typical for wild or well-adapted individuals.

Do Macaws communicate emotions by blushing and fluffing?

Yes, macaws show rapid skin color changes (blushing) on bare cheek patches and fluff facial feathers during emotional arousal.

When did horse domestication occur?

Around 3500 BCE (approx. 5,500 years ago) in the Eurasian steppes (Botai culture).

Describe horse vision

Monocular vision laterally (~215° each eye) allowing broad panoramic awareness, with a narrow binocular zone (~65°) in front.

Can horses see colors?

Yes, they have dichromatic vision (see blues and yellows, but struggle with reds/greens).

Describe horse hearing characteristics

Highly mobile ears rotating ~180° independently, capable of detecting ultrasound frequencies up to ~33,000 Hz.

What is the vomeronasal organ?

An auxiliary olfactory organ (Jacobson's organ) in the nasal cavity that detects pheromones and non-volatile chemicals.

What is the flehmen response and where does it occur?

Curling back the upper lip to expose the vomeronasal organ; occurs in horses, cattle, cats, sheep, and goats.

Define pheromones

Chemical substances released by an animal into the environment affecting the physiology or behavior of others of its species.

Sense of taste in horses

Well-developed; sensitive to sweet, salty, sour, and bitter, preferring sweet/salty forage options.

How horses perceive touch

Highly sensitive hide with whiskers (vibrissae) around muzzle/eyes; sensitive to touch, pressure, temperature, and insects.

Define horse terminology (stallion, gelding, mare, foal, etc.)

Stallion: Intact male; Gelding: Castrated male; Mare: Mature female; Foal: Newborn (

Define Jack, Jenny, Jennet

Jack: Male donkey; Jenny/Jennet: Female donkey.

Define Mule and Hinny

Mule: Male donkey + Female horse (mare). Hinny: Male horse (stallion) + Female donkey (jenny).

What is a harem?

A social group consisting of one dominant stallion, several mature mares, and their immature offspring.

Dominance hierarchy in horses

Linear or complex social structure based on age, resource priority, and subtle body language rather than brute force.

Leadership in feral horse groups

An older, experienced lead mare often guides group movements, while the harem stallion drives from behind and protects.

Leadership in domesticated horse herds

Often dictated by human housing choices, but established by dominant mares/geldings during field turnouts.

Who is 'the boss mare'?

The highest-ranking female in a herd who directs movement to water/food and enforces group social order.

Ingestive behavior of the horse

Trickle feeders that graze for 16-18 hours per day on high-fiber pastures.

What is the 'stay apparatus' in the horse?

An anatomical arrangement of ligaments and tendons locking lower leg joints, allowing standing sleep with minimal effort.

Sleep behavior of the horse

Doze while standing; require deep REM sleep lying down in sternal or lateral recumbency for 1-3 hours daily.

What is coprophagy and when does it occur in horses?

Eating feces. Normal in young foals to establish intestinal flora; abnormal in adults caused by dietary deficits/boredom.

Maternal-offspring behavior in horses

Strong bonding occurs within hours of birth via licking/sniffing; mares fiercely protect their precocial foals.

Two common abnormal behaviors in horses

Cribbing (wind-sucking) and weaving (side-to-side pacing).

Stereotypes vs Stereotypy

Stereotype: A generalized fixed idea/view. Stereotypy: A repetitive, invariant, functionless behavior pattern.

What are stereotypic behaviors in horses?

Repetitive behaviors like crib-biting, stall-walking, and weaving triggered by stress, confinement, or low forage diets.

Causes of stereotypic behaviors in horses

Isolation, high-concentrate/low-roughage diets, lack of turnout, stress, and lack of mental stimulation.

Common ancestor of zebus and cows

The extinct wild Aurochs (Bos primigenius).

What is the flight zone in cattle?

The animal's personal space/safety perimeter; entering it causes the animal to move away.

How can the size of the flight zone vary?

Varies based on wildness/tameness, handler experience, past handling stress, and current arousal level.

What is the point of balance in cattle?

Located at the animal's shoulder; stepping behind moves the cow forward, stepping in front stops/reverses it.

Vision in cattle

Panoramic vision (~330°) with a small binocular area (~30-50°) in front and a blind spot directly behind.

Can cattle see colors and be used in management?

Dichromatic (blue/yellow emphasis). High visual contrast (dramatic shadows, flapping coats) startles them in chutes.

Hearing, taste, touch in cattle

Hearing is sensitive to high pitches; taste discriminates sweet/salty forage; touch is sensitive along spine and flank.

Four factors determining dominance order in cattle

Age, body weight, presence/size of horns, and prior social experience.

Two types of hierarchical organization in cattle

Linear hierarchy (in small herds) and complex/biphasic network hierarchies (in large herds).

Two approaches characterizing reactivity in cattle

Active avoidance (flight/fight) and passive immobility (freezing).

Aggressive interaction in cattle

Head-down threatening postures, pawing earth, horning ground, sideway broadside displays, and head-butting.

Are cows or bulls territorial?

Cows are non-territorial home-range grazers; bulls can exhibit localized site-specific defense during breeding seasons.

Exploratory behavior in cattle

Cautious investigation using sniffing, licking items with tongue, and nudging novel objects.

What is the dental pad in cattle?

A thick fibrous tissue pad replacing upper incisors, allowing cattle to wrap tongues around grass and tear it.

Feeding behavior in cattle

Wrap long muscular tongues around pasture forage to crop grass, eating rapidly before ruminating later.

Are cattle 'close grazers'?

No, cattle rely on tongue wrapping rather than close lip grazing (unlike sheep and horses).

When does grazing primarily occur in cattle?

Diurnal pattern, mostly during early morning and late afternoon/dusk.

Define rumination

Regurgitating, re-chewing, re-salivatoring, and re-swallowing boluses of cud to break down plant fiber.