Psychopathology Exam 2

What is generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)?

Excessive anxiety and worry across many circumstances, occurring more days than not for at least 6 months and causing distress or impairment

What is a specific phobia (SP)?

A severe, persistent fear of a particular object, activity, or situation that is disproportionate to the actual danger and leads to avoidance or distress

What is separation anxiety disorder?

Developmentally inappropriate, excessive fear or anxiety about separation from attachment figures, with symptoms such as distress before separation, worry about losing them, refusal to leave, nightmares, or physical complaints

What is social anxiety disorder (SAD)?

Severe, persistent anxiety about social or performance situations in which a person may be scrutinized or negatively evaluated by others

What is panic disorder (PD)?

Repeated, unexpected panic attacks followed by persistent worry about more attacks or maladaptive changes in behavior

What is obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?

A disorder involving obsessions, compulsions, or both

What is an obsession?

An intrusive, unwanted, recurrent thought, urge, or image that causes distress

What is a compulsion?

A repetitive behavior or mental act performed to reduce distress or prevent a feared event, often excessively or not realistically connected to the feared outcome

What is a panic attack?

A sudden surge of intense fear or discomfort that peaks within minutes and includes physical or cognitive symptoms

How does the psychodynamic perspective explain GAD?

Anxiety becomes excessive when defense mechanisms break down or function poorly, allowing conflict-related anxiety to emerge

How does the humanistic perspective explain GAD?

A person may not have received unconditional positive regard from significant others during childhood

How does the cognitive-behavioral perspective explain GAD?

Maladaptive assumptions and inaccurate beliefs about the power or value of worrying maintain anxiety

How does the biological perspective explain GAD?

Biological vulnerability and an overly reactive fear/anxiety system may contribute

How does the cognitive-behavioral perspective explain specific phobia?

Fear can be learned through classical conditioning or modeling and maintained by avoidance

How does the cognitive-behavioral perspective explain social anxiety disorder?

Dysfunctional social beliefs and expectations lead to fear of negative evaluation, safety behaviors, and avoidance

How does the biological perspective explain panic disorder?

A hyperactive panic circuit or biological sensitivity to bodily changes may contribute

How does the cognitive-behavioral perspective explain panic disorder?

People may focus on bodily sensations and misinterpret them as signs of a medical catastrophe, escalating panic

How does the psychodynamic perspective explain OCD?

OCD is traditionally described as a battle between id impulses and ego defense mechanisms

How does the cognitive-behavioral perspective explain OCD?

Unwanted thoughts become highly distressing, and compulsions are reinforced because they temporarily reduce anxiety

How does the biological perspective explain OCD?

Dysfunction in the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuit may contribute

How is GAD treated from a psychodynamic perspective?

Free association and interpretation

How is GAD treated from a humanistic perspective?

Client-centered therapy emphasizing empathy, genuineness, and acceptance

How is GAD treated with CBT?

Identify and challenge unhelpful beliefs, reduce excessive worry, and build coping and problem-solving skills

What medications may be used for GAD?

SSRIs or SNRIs are common; benzodiazepines may be used short-term in selected cases. Antipsychotics are not routine first-line treatment and require careful clinical judgment

How is specific phobia commonly treated?

Exposure-based cognitive-behavioral therapy, gradually and safely approaching the feared object or situation

How is social anxiety disorder commonly treated?

CBT, exposure techniques, and changing beliefs about negative evaluation; medication may also be considered

How is panic disorder treated with CBT?

Learn to interpret physical sensations more accurately, reduce catastrophic thinking, and develop ways to cope with anxiety

How is OCD treated with CBT?

Psychoeducation and exposure and response prevention (ERP), which involves facing triggers while refraining from compulsions

What medication class is commonly used for OCD?

SSRIs and other appropriate antidepressant treatment may be used

What is the effect of societal stress and danger on anxiety?

Higher exposure to poverty, insecurity, discrimination, violence, and chronic stress can be associated with greater anxiety risk; this is not a rule for every individual

What are basic irrational assumptions in REBT?

Rigid demands such as “I must be perfect,” “everyone must approve of me,” or “things must go my way,” which can fuel distress

What is rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)?

A therapy that identifies and disputes irrational beliefs and replaces them with more flexible, realistic beliefs

What is client-centered therapy?

A humanistic therapy based on empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard

What is metacognitive theory of worry?

Worry is maintained partly by beliefs about worrying itself, such as believing worry is uncontrollable or useful for preventing danger

What is intolerance-of-uncertainty theory?

Difficulty accepting uncertainty leads to worry, threat monitoring, and attempts to gain certainty

What is avoidance theory of worry?

Worry may act as verbal avoidance of vivid emotional imagery and can be negatively reinforced when it temporarily reduces distress

What neurotransmitters are commonly discussed in anxiety disorders?

GABA, serotonin, and norepinephrine are commonly discussed; different disorders and medications involve different mechanisms

What is the role of GABA in anxiety?

GABA is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; enhancing GABA activity can reduce nervous-system arousal

What brain circuits are involved in anxiety?

Circuits involving the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, insula, and related threat and regulation systems

What medications may be used for anxiety disorders?

SSRIs/SNRIs are common long-term options for several anxiety disorders; benzodiazepines may be used selectively and cautiously due to risks such as sedation, tolerance, and dependence

Who is affected by anxiety disorders?

They can affect people of any age or background. Rates differ by disorder, age, gender, country, and survey method

What is the general prevalence pattern for anxiety disorders?

Anxiety disorders are among the most common mental disorders; use the specific rates in course materials because estimates vary by population and diagnostic method

What is acute stress disorder (ASD)?

Trauma-related symptoms lasting from 3 days to 1 month after a traumatic event, including intrusion, negative mood, dissociation, avoidance, and arousal symptoms

What is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

Trauma-related intrusion, avoidance, negative changes in cognition or mood, and arousal/reactivity symptoms lasting more than 1 month and causing significant distress or impairment

What is dissociative identity disorder (DID)?

Disruption of identity involving two or more distinct personality states and recurrent gaps in memory that are not ordinary forgetting; symptoms cause distress or impairment and are not explained by cultural practice or substances/medical conditions

What is depersonalization-derealization disorder (DDD)?

Persistent or recurrent depersonalization (detachment from oneself) and/or derealization (the world feels unreal), with reality testing remaining intact and significant distress or impairment

What is the autonomic nervous system?

The part of the nervous system that regulates involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and gland activity

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body for action during stress, often described as fight-or-flight

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that supports rest, digestion, and recovery

What are corticosteroids in the stress response?

Steroid hormones, including cortisol, involved in regulating the body’s response to stress

What is the HPA axis?

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: the hypothalamus signals the pituitary, which signals the adrenal glands to release cortisol

What is the fight-or-flight response?

A rapid physiological response to perceived threat that prepares the body for action

What are adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)?

Potentially traumatic or highly stressful experiences during childhood, such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction, associated with elevated later health risks

What is intolerance of uncertainty?

Difficulty coping with not knowing what will happen, which can increase worry and avoidance

What is resilience?

The ability to adapt and recover following adversity; it does not mean never experiencing distress

What is complex PTSD?

In ICD-11, PTSD symptoms plus persistent problems with emotion regulation, negative self-concept, and relationships, often following prolonged or repeated trauma; it is not a separate DSM-5-TR diagnosis

What is equifinality?

Different pathways or risk factors can lead to the same outcome, such as PTSD

What is multifinality?

The same experience can lead to different outcomes in different people

What is dissociative amnesia?

Inability to recall important autobiographical information, often related to stress or trauma, beyond ordinary forgetting

What is dissociative fugue?

A form of dissociative amnesia involving unexpected travel or wandering with confusion about identity or autobiographical memory

What does iatrogenic mean?

Caused or unintentionally encouraged by medical or psychological treatment

What is state-dependent learning?

Information learned in one internal state may be easier to retrieve when that state returns; this does not prove a recovered traumatic memory is accurate

What cognitive factors can maintain stress disorders?

Threat-focused attention, negative appraisals, self-blame, overestimating danger, and avoidance of reminders

What does the amygdala do in the stress circuit?

Detects emotional significance and potential threats and contributes to fear learning

What does the hippocampus do in the stress circuit?

Supports memory and context, helping distinguish current situations from past experiences

What does the prefrontal cortex do in the stress circuit?

Supports appraisal, planning, and regulation of emotional responses

What is the HPA stress sequence?

CRH from the hypothalamus leads to ACTH from the pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release from the adrenal cortex

What does the sympathetic stress response release?

The sympathetic system and adrenal medulla help release noradrenaline and adrenaline, preparing the body for rapid action

How does the biological perspective explain PTSD?

Genetic vulnerability, stress-hormone regulation, arousal systems, and threat/memory circuits may contribute

How does the behavioral perspective explain PTSD?

Trauma-related cues become associated with fear through conditioning; avoidance is reinforced because it temporarily reduces distress

How does the cognitive perspective explain PTSD?

Negative appraisals, self-blame, exaggerated danger beliefs, and difficulties processing trauma memories can maintain symptoms

How does the psychodynamic perspective explain trauma symptoms?

Traditional accounts emphasize defenses, conflicts, or experiences difficult to consciously process

How does the sociocultural perspective explain trauma disorders?

Trauma exposure, discrimination, poverty, violence, social support, and cultural context affect risk and recovery

How is PTSD commonly treated?

Trauma-focused CBT, prolonged exposure, cognitive processing therapy, EMDR, and sometimes medication such as selected SSRIs/SNRIs

What is prolonged exposure therapy?

A trauma-focused therapy that helps a person gradually and safely approach trauma memories and reminders instead of persistently avoiding them

What is cognitive processing therapy?

A trauma-focused therapy that addresses unhelpful trauma-related beliefs, including excessive self-blame

What is EMDR?

A structured psychotherapy that involves recalling aspects of a traumatic experience while engaging in bilateral stimulation

How are dissociative disorders generally treated?

Psychotherapy, stabilization, coping skills, and treatment of co-occurring problems; therapy should not pressure memory retrieval or assume uncertain memories are accurate

What is the difference between acute stress disorder and PTSD?

Acute stress disorder lasts 3 days to 1 month after trauma; PTSD symptoms persist longer than 1 month

What is a key caution about PTSD prevalence?

Trauma exposure is common, but only a subset of exposed people develop PTSD; estimates vary by population and diagnostic method

What is major depressive disorder (MDD)?

At least 2 weeks of depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure plus enough additional symptoms to meet criteria, causing significant distress or impairment

What is anhedonia?

Reduced interest in or pleasure from activities

What are common emotional symptoms of depression?

Sadness, emptiness, irritability, guilt, and hopelessness

What are common motivational symptoms of depression?

Reduced initiative, low drive, and loss of interest

What are common behavioral symptoms of depression?

Social withdrawal, reduced activity, and changes in daily routines

What are common cognitive symptoms of depression?

Poor concentration, indecision, negative beliefs, and excessive guilt or worthlessness

What are common physical symptoms of depression?

Changes in sleep or appetite, fatigue, and psychomotor slowing or agitation

What is bipolar I disorder?

A disorder requiring at least one manic episode; major depressive episodes may occur but are not required for diagnosis

What is mania?

An abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and increased energy, usually lasting at least 1 week or any duration if hospitalization is necessary, with marked impairment or possible psychosis

What is bipolar II disorder?

At least one hypomanic episode and one major depressive episode, with no history of a full manic episode

What is hypomania?

A distinct period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy lasting at least 4 consecutive days, with an observable change but without the marked impairment, hospitalization, or psychosis that defines mania

What is PMDD?

Severe premenstrual mood and physical symptoms that emerge before menstruation, improve soon after menstruation begins, and cause significant distress or impairment; prospective daily ratings across at least two symptomatic cycles help confirm it

What is cyclothymic disorder?

At least 2 years in adults (1 year in children/adolescents) of numerous hypomanic and depressive symptoms that do not meet full episode criteria, with symptoms present much of the time

What is the difference between unipolar and bipolar depression?

Unipolar depression occurs without a history of mania or hypomania; bipolar depression occurs within a disorder that includes mania or hypomania

What is the cognitive triad?

Beck’s model of negative views of the self, the world/experiences, and the future

What is learned helplessness?

After repeated uncontrollable negative experiences, a person may learn that actions do not affect outcomes and may stop trying

What is attribution-helplessness theory?

Depression risk can increase when negative events are explained as internal, stable, and global

What is lack-of-control theory?

Perceived lack of control over important outcomes may increase distress and vulnerability to depression

How can body dissatisfaction relate to depression?

Negative feelings about the body can contribute to low self-esteem and depressed mood, but are not a sufficient cause by themselves

What is the biological perspective on depression?

Genetic vulnerability, brain circuits, neurotransmission, circadian rhythms, and stress/immune processes may contribute