Chapter 7: Devience, Culture, and Social Control

What is deviance in sociology?

Behavior that violates established social, cultural, or contextual norms. Deviance is not necessarily harmful or illegal, and what counts as deviant depends on society, culture, and circumstances.

How is deviance different from crime?

Deviance violates social norms, while crime violates formally established laws. All crimes violate legal norms, but many deviant behaviors are not criminal.

Why is deviance considered relative?

An action may be considered deviant in one culture, time, or setting but acceptable in another. For example, behavior appropriate at a party might be considered disrespectful at a funeral.

Can deviance have positive effects on society?

Yes. Deviance can challenge outdated norms and promote social change, as demonstrated by civil rights activists who challenged segregation.

What are social control and social order?

Social control is the regulation and enforcement of society's norms. Social order is the arrangement of expected behaviors and practices that makes everyday social life predictable.

What are sanctions, and what are their two basic types?

Sanctions are rewards or punishments used to reinforce norms. Positive sanctions reward conformity, while negative sanctions discourage or punish violations.

What is the difference between formal and informal sanctions?

Formal sanctions are officially imposed, such as fines, expulsion, or promotions. Informal sanctions arise through everyday interactions, such as praise, criticism, or disapproving looks.

How can sanctions be both positive/negative and formal/informal?

They represent two separate dimensions. A promotion is positive/formal, a compliment is positive/informal, a fine is negative/formal, and an angry comment is negative/informal.

How does functionalism explain deviance?

Functionalism views deviance as a normal and sometimes necessary part of society. Deviance can reinforce social norms, clarify moral boundaries, and encourage social change.

What did Émile Durkheim argue about deviance?

Durkheim believed deviance is inevitable and necessary in society. Punishing deviance reinforces shared norms, while challenging norms can produce social change.

What is Durkheim's collective conscience?

The shared beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society. Laws and reactions to deviance often reflect these collective values.

What is Robert Merton's strain theory?

Deviance may occur when people accept society's goals but lack legitimate opportunities to achieve them. The pressure between desired success and unequal access to acceptable means creates strain.

What are Merton's five responses to strain?

Conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. They differ according to whether people accept, reject, or replace society's goals and accepted means.

What is conformity in Merton's strain theory?

Accepting society's goals and pursuing them through legitimate means, such as working and studying to achieve financial success.

What is innovation in Merton's strain theory?

Accepting society's goals but using illegitimate or deviant means to achieve them. For example, stealing money to obtain financial success.

What is ritualism in Merton's strain theory?

Abandoning or lowering society's major success goals while continuing to follow accepted rules and procedures. A worker may stop pursuing advancement but continue following every workplace rule.

What is retreatism in Merton's strain theory?

Rejecting both society's conventional goals and accepted means of achieving them, often withdrawing from mainstream expectations.

What is rebellion in Merton's strain theory?

Rejecting society's existing goals and means and attempting to replace them with new ones. Unlike retreatism, rebellion seeks to establish an alternative social system.

What is social disorganization theory?

Crime is more likely in communities with weak social ties and insufficient social control. Poverty, family disruption, and limited community resources may contribute to these conditions.

What is cultural deviance theory?

Crime can result from conforming to the norms of a subculture whose values conflict with those of mainstream society. Behavior may be accepted locally but condemned by the larger society.

How does conflict theory explain crime and deviance?

Conflict theory emphasizes inequality, wealth, and power. Powerful groups influence which behaviors become criminal and how laws are enforced, potentially protecting their interests.

How did Karl Marx influence conflict theories of crime?

Marx identified conflict between the bourgeoisie, who control production, and the proletariat, who depend on them for work. His ideas help explain how laws and institutions may preserve class inequality.

What is C. Wright Mills's power elite theory?

A small group of wealthy and influential individuals holds disproportionate political, economic, and institutional power. They can influence laws and decisions in ways that maintain their advantages.

How does symbolic interactionism explain deviance?

It focuses on how social interactions and other people's reactions create definitions of deviance. A behavior becomes socially meaningful through the labels and interpretations attached to it.

What is labeling theory?

The theory that deviance is shaped by society's reactions and labels rather than behavior alone. Being repeatedly labeled deviant can influence how people see themselves and act.

What is the difference between primary and secondary deviance?

Primary deviance violates norms without permanently changing identity. Secondary deviance occurs when being labeled deviant changes someone's self-concept and encourages further deviant behavior.

Who developed the distinction between primary and secondary deviance?

Edwin Lemert. His work explains how social reactions and labeling can transform an initial violation into a lasting deviant identity.

What is a master status?

A label that becomes the dominant characteristic through which someone is viewed or identifies themselves. Being labeled a criminal may overshadow a person's other identities.

What are Sykes and Matza's five techniques of neutralization?

Denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of the victim, condemnation of the condemners, and appeal to higher authority. These are ways people rationalize or justify deviant behavior.

How do the five neutralization techniques differ?

Responsibility: 'Not my fault.' Injury: 'Nobody was hurt.' Victim: 'They deserved it.' Condemners: 'My critics are worse.' Higher authority: 'I did it for a greater good.'

What is Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory?

People learn deviant behavior through close social relationships. Exposure to others who model and approve of deviance can make someone more likely to accept and practice it.

What is control theory?

Strong social bonds discourage deviance because people feel connected to others and invested in society. Weak bonds or disconnection increase the likelihood of violating norms.

How do differential association and control theory differ?

Differential association emphasizes learning deviance from close relationships. Control theory emphasizes how weak social bonds reduce the pressure to conform.

What are the major categories of crime discussed in Chapter 7?

Violent crime involves force or threats; nonviolent crime involves property without force; street crime occurs in everyday public settings; corporate crime occurs in business; victimless crime lacks a direct injured party.

What is the difference between street crime and corporate crime?

Street crime is typically committed by individuals against people or organizations in public settings. Corporate crime occurs in business environments, such as fraud or illegal financial practices.

What is a hate crime?

A criminal act motivated by bias against a person's characteristics, such as race, religion, or other protected group identity.

What are the three main components of the criminal justice system?

Police enforce laws and maintain order; courts interpret and apply laws; corrections supervise people who have been arrested, convicted, or sentenced.

How do the Uniform Crime Reports and victimization surveys differ?

Uniform Crime Reports use crimes reported to law enforcement. Victimization surveys ask people about crimes they experienced, including incidents never reported to police.

What is the difference between prison and jail?

Jails generally hold people temporarily, including those awaiting trial or serving shorter sentences. Prisons generally hold people serving longer sentences and are operated by state or federal authorities.

What is the difference between probation and parole?

Probation is supervised time generally used instead of imprisonment. Parole is supervised conditional release after someone has served part of a custodial sentence.