psych 1.2-1.4 neuroscience

What is the body’s network of nerves and neurons that coordinates communication and activity?

Nervous system

Which nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord?

Central nervous system (CNS)

Which nervous system connects the CNS to the rest of the body?

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Which CNS structure processes information, supports thought and emotion, and coordinates bodily functions?

Brain

Which CNS structure carries messages between the brain and body and coordinates many reflexes?

Spinal cord

What type of neuron carries sensory information from receptors toward the CNS?

Afferent (sensory) neuron

What type of neuron carries motor commands from the CNS toward muscles or glands?

Efferent (motor) neuron

Which PNS division controls voluntary skeletal muscle movement?

Somatic nervous system

Which PNS division regulates involuntary functions such as heart rate and digestion?

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Which autonomic division prepares the body for danger or vigorous action?

Sympathetic nervous system

What response increases heart rate, breathing, and alertness during a threat?

Fight-or-flight response

Which autonomic division promotes digestion and conserves energy after a threat?

Parasympathetic nervous system

What phrase describes the parasympathetic division’s main role?

Rest and digest

What term means maintaining a relatively stable internal bodily environment?

Homeostasis

What is the path of a voluntary movement command from the brain to a hand muscle?

Brain → spinal cord → peripheral motor neurons → skeletal muscle

What bodily changes typically occur when the sympathetic nervous system activates?

Heart rate and breathing increase, pupils dilate, and digestion slows.

What bodily changes typically occur when the parasympathetic nervous system activates?

Heart rate slows, digestion increases, and energy is conserved.

What specialized cell transmits information using electrical and chemical signals?

Neuron

What support cells insulate neurons, supply nutrients, and remove waste?

Glial cells (glia)

What part of a neuron contains the nucleus and integrates incoming signals?

Cell body (soma)

What part of a neuron receives messages from other neurons?

Dendrites

What part of a neuron carries electrical impulses away from the cell body?

Axon

What fatty insulating layer speeds neural impulses along an axon?

Myelin sheath

What gaps in the myelin sheath allow an impulse to jump along an axon?

Nodes of Ranvier

What glial cell forms myelin around axons in the peripheral nervous system?

Schwann cell

What structures at the end of an axon release neurotransmitters?

Axon terminals (terminal buttons)

What is the small space between a sending neuron and a receiving cell?

Synaptic cleft (synaptic gap)

What general term describes the junction where one neuron communicates with another cell?

Synapse

What molecules carry chemical messages across most synapses?

Neurotransmitters

What is the sending side of a chemical synapse called?

Presynaptic terminal

What is the receiving side of a chemical synapse called?

Postsynaptic membrane

What proteins on a receiving neuron bind particular neurotransmitters?

Receptors (receptor sites)

What neurons connect sensory neurons and motor neurons within the CNS?

Interneurons

What receptors detect potentially damaging stimuli, such as stepping on something sharp?

Nociceptors

What rapid, automatic neural pathway produces a response without waiting for conscious processing?

Reflex arc

What is the pathway of a simple withdrawal reflex after touching something sharp?

Pain receptor → sensory neuron → spinal interneuron → motor neuron → muscle response

What principle says a neuron fires a full action potential only when its threshold is reached?

All-or-none principle

What is the minimum stimulation required to trigger a neural action potential?

Threshold

What is the brief electrical impulse that travels down a neuron’s axon?

Action potential

What is the neuron’s stable, relatively negative electrical state when not firing?

Resting potential

What change makes a neuron’s interior less negative and helps initiate an action potential?

Depolarization

What is the brief recovery interval after firing when a neuron cannot immediately fire another impulse?

Refractory period

What process returns a neuron’s membrane voltage toward its resting level after depolarization?

Repolarization

What change makes a neuron more negative than its resting level and less likely to fire?

Hyperpolarization

What process takes released neurotransmitters back into the sending neuron?

Reuptake

What type of neural signal increases the likelihood of an action potential?

Excitatory signal

What type of neural signal decreases the likelihood of an action potential?

Inhibitory signal

What is the usual sequence of neural communication between two neurons?

Dendrites receive input → threshold reached → action potential travels down axon → terminals release neurotransmitters → receptors bind them.

What happens to neurotransmitters after they deliver a message at a synapse?

They may be reabsorbed by reuptake, broken down, or diffuse away.

What disorder damages myelin in the CNS and disrupts nerve signaling?

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

What autoimmune disorder impairs nerve-to-muscle communication by targeting acetylcholine receptors?

Myasthenia gravis

Which neurotransmitter supports muscle contraction, learning, and memory?

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Which neurotransmitter is especially involved in transmitting pain signals?

Substance P

Which neurotransmitter is associated with reward, movement, attention, and learning?

Dopamine

Which neurotransmitter helps regulate mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal?

Serotonin

What natural opioid-like neurotransmitters help reduce pain perception?

Endorphins

Which neurotransmitter contributes to alertness, arousal, and fight-or-flight responses?

Norepinephrine

Which major excitatory neurotransmitter is important for learning and memory?

Glutamate

Which major inhibitory neurotransmitter helps calm neural activity?

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

What body system releases hormones into the bloodstream to regulate bodily processes?

Endocrine system

What chemical messengers travel through the bloodstream and affect target cells?

Hormones

Which hormone prepares the body for emergencies by increasing arousal and directing blood to muscles?

Adrenaline (epinephrine)

Which hormone signals sufficient stored energy and tends to suppress hunger?

Leptin

Which hormone stimulates hunger and is released mainly by the stomach?

Ghrelin

Which hormone helps regulate the sleep–wake cycle and increases in darkness?

Melatonin

Which hormone promotes social bonding and is involved in childbirth and milk release?

Oxytocin

What term describes the roughly 24-hour biological rhythm regulating sleep and wakefulness?

Circadian rhythm

What term describes a substance that changes mood, perception, or consciousness?

Psychoactive drug

Which class of drugs increases central nervous system activity and alertness?

Stimulants

Which class of drugs slows central nervous system activity?

Depressants

Which class of drugs can substantially alter sensory experience and perception?

Hallucinogens

Which class of drugs reduces pain by acting on opioid receptors and carries addiction risk?

Opioids

What are three examples of stimulant drugs mentioned in Mr. Sinn’s video?

Caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine

What are two examples of depressants mentioned in Mr. Sinn’s video?

Alcohol and sleeping pills

What are two examples of hallucinogens mentioned in Mr. Sinn’s video?

LSD and peyote (mescaline)

What are three examples of opioids mentioned in Mr. Sinn’s video?

Morphine, heroin, and oxycodone

What term means needing more of a drug to achieve the same effect?

Tolerance

What term refers to unpleasant physical or psychological symptoms after reducing or stopping a drug?

Withdrawal

What term describes compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences?

Addiction (substance use disorder)

What substance or drug action increases or mimics a neurotransmitter’s effect?

Agonist

What substance or drug action blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter’s effect?

Antagonist

What type of drug prevents neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed by the sending neuron?

Reuptake inhibitor

What happens at a synapse when a reuptake inhibitor blocks neurotransmitter reabsorption?

More neurotransmitter remains available in the synaptic cleft for longer.

What term describes the brain’s ability to reorganize neural connections through experience or injury?

Neuroplasticity (brain plasticity)

What structure connects the brain to the spinal cord and regulates basic survival functions?

Brainstem

Which brainstem structure controls breathing, heart rate, and other vital autonomic functions?

Medulla oblongata

Which brainstem structure helps coordinate sleep, dreaming, and communication with the cerebellum?

Pons

Which structure coordinates balance, posture, and fine motor movements?

Cerebellum

What type of long-term learning allows practiced skills such as riding a bicycle to become automatic?

Procedural learning (procedural memory)

Which brainstem network helps regulate alertness, arousal, and wakefulness?

Reticular activating system (reticular formation)

What brain system reinforces rewarding experiences and is strongly associated with dopamine?

Reward system (reward pathway)

What collection of interconnected brain structures is strongly involved in emotion, memory, and motivation?

Limbic system

Which brain structure relays most sensory information to the cerebral cortex, excluding smell?

Thalamus

Which brain structure helps regulate hunger, thirst, body temperature, and endocrine activity?

Hypothalamus

Which gland releases hormones regulating growth and other endocrine glands?

Pituitary gland

Which brain structure is essential for forming new explicit long-term memories?

Hippocampus

Which brain structure is especially involved in fear, threat detection, and emotional learning?

Amygdala

What is the outer layer of the cerebrum responsible for complex processing and voluntary functions?

Cerebral cortex

What large band of fibers connects the brain’s left and right hemispheres?

Corpus callosum

Which cerebral lobe at the back of the brain primarily processes visual information?

Occipital lobe