AP PSYCH vocab terms

Mod 9-15 SET 1

Neuron

Neural cells that transmit information. Form basis of the nervous system and are building blocks of all behavior and mental processes.

Glial cells

Cells that provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport. Form basis of the nervous system and are the building blocks of all behavior and mental processes. They support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. Provides nutrients, insulate myelin, guide neural connections, mop up ions and neurotransmitters.

Dendrites

Are busy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

Cell body (soma)

Part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, the cell’s life support center. Axon is attached to this.

Axon

Is the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Myelin Sheath

The fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; increases transmission speed and provides insulation. Development is not complete until around age 25, is crucial to behavior, movement, and thought. Deterioration of this can lead to motor impairments like MS.

Terminal Branches of Axons

The ends of the axon containing terminal buttons which hold synaptic vesicles that store neurotransmitters.

Neural Transmission

Commonly occurs in an orderly, systematic way and involves all-or-none principle, depolarization, refractory period, resting potential, reuptake, and threshold. Disruptions to this process could lead to disorders such as MS or MG.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

The immune system attacks the myelin sheath and damages nerve communication. Messages between the brain and body slow down or get disrupted.

Myasthenia Gravis (MG)

The immune system attacks receptors sites at the junction between nerves and muscles. This disrupts communication between nerves and muscles. Muscle contractions become weaker, causing fatigue and muscle weakness. The immune system attacks, acetylcholine receptor disrupting communication between nerves and muscle muscles and causing muscle weakness and fatigue.

Resting potential

Refers to the state of a neuron when it is not being stimulated or sending signals.

threshold

Is the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. Neural impulses can be excitatory or inhibitory. When the excitatory impulses outnumber the inhibitory impulses, the threshold has been reached and an action potential (neurons fire and travels) occurs.

action potential

If the combined received chemical signals exceed a minimum threshold, the neuron fires, transmitting an electrical impulse (action potential) down its axon by means of a chemistry-to-electricity process. → cannot stop

all-or-none principle/ law

More stimulation does not produce a more intense neural transmission. The neuron’s reaction is an all-or-none response. Neural firing happens at full response or not at all. After a neurons fires an action potential, it pauses for a short period called the refractory period. During this resting pause, another action potential cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

all-or-none response

The neuron’s reaction is an all-or-none response. Neural firing happens at full response or not at all.

refractory period

After a neurons fires an action potential, it pauses for a short period called the refractory period. During this resting pause, another action potential cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

polarization

The resting state of the neuron, charge is more positive outside the membrane and more negative inside.

depolarization

The action potential; the rushing in and out of positively charged ions.

repolarization

The refractory period; closing of the membrane and reestablishing a more negative charge inside.

communication within a neuron diagram

communication between neurons

The sending neuron releases neurotransmitters across a synapse to the receiving neuron. When an action potential reaches, an axons terminal branch is stimulates the release of neurotransmitter molecules. This crosses, the synaptic gap and the receptor sites on the receiving neuron.

neurotransmitters

Are chemical messengers that travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron.

synapse

Is the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

synaptic gap (synaptic cleft)

The tiny gap in the synapse junction. Reuptake happens here.

reuptake

Is a neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron. If receptor sites is full the neurotransmitter to go back up.

excitatory neurotransmitters

Making an action potential more likely. I

Used for people who are low energy.

inhibitory neurotransmitters

Making an action potential less likely. Used for people who have higher energy.

acetylcholine (ACh)

Plays a role in learning and memory. A messenger between motor neurons and skeletal neurons. When this is released by a neuron, it binds to the receptor on the muscle salad, causing the muscle to contract. If this transmission is plugged, muscles cannot contract resulting in paralysis.

dopamine

This place a key role in movement learning attention and emotion. Some studies indicate this associate with reward feelings and could play a role in addiction. It is belief that axis levels of this neurotransmitter in the synapse is linked to schizophrenia. An undersupply of this at the synapse is linked to Parkinson’s disease.

seretonin

This place a key roll in sleep mode, hunger, attention, learning, and aggression. Lack of this is associated with depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders.

norepinephrine

This helps control alertness, and arousal. Under supply of this can depressed mood.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

This is a major inhibitory (stops neurons🛑) neurotransmitter. Undersupply of this is linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

glutamate

This is a major excitatory neurotransmitter (fires neurons☄)that is also involved in memory. Over supply of this can overstimulate the brain producing migraines and seizures.

endorphins

Meaning morphine within natural substances of this are opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Substance P

This is a neurotransmitter present in the brain and spinal cord where it is primary involved in transmitting pain signals.

Lock and Key Mechanism of Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neuron. (Each neurotransmitters have their own receptor sites at the synapse gap).

psychoactive drugs

This can influence a neurotransmitter function in various ways throughout the neural communication process.

agonists

Is a psychoactive drug that encourage neural firing. It is similar enough structure to a neurotransmitter molecule that mimics its effects on the receiving neuron.

antagonists

Is a psychoactive drug that discourage neural firing. This can also work by blocking reuptake and let Neurotransmitter state in synapse gap. This structure is similar enough to neurotransmitter to occupy its receptor site and block it action, but not similar enough to stimulate the receptor.

reuptake inhibitors

Is a psychoactive drug that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the cell (No transmitter stay inside the synapse gap).

nervous system

Is the body’s fastest speed, electrochemical communications network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system.

nerves

Are bundled axons of many neurons that form neural cables, connecting the central nervous system system with muscles, glands, and senses organs.

sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons are nerves that carry information from the sense organs to the central nervous system.

motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons carry messages from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

interneurons

Are located in the brain and spinal cord. These neurons bridge, the gap to relay information between the sensory and motor neurons.

receptor cells

Our specialized cells in the sensory systems of the body that can turn other kinds of energy into action potentials that the nervous system can process.

central nervous system

Made up of the brain and spinal cord. This coordinates incoming sensory messages and outgoing motor messages. COLLEGE BOARD: This includes the brain and the spinal cord and interacts with all processes in the body.

peripheral nervous system

This is made up of sensory and motor neurons. It connects the body to the central nervous system by gathering information from the census and transmitting messages from the central nervous system. COLLEGE BOARD: this releases messages from the central nervous system to the rest of the body and includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

somatic nervous system

Also known as The skeletal nervous system, Controls the body’s skeletal muscles. It contains motor nurse needed for voluntary muscles. COLLEGE BOARD: This governance processes that are voluntary.

Autonomic nervous system

Controls glands and the muscles of the intern organs (such as the heart). Controls breathing, blood pressure, and digestive processes. COLLEGE BOARD: this governs processes that are involuntary and include the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic nervous system

Arouses, the body mobilizing his energy. It activates the flight or flight response. flight flight or freeze. Accelerate heart rate raises, blood pressure, flow digestion, raises blood sugar, and cools down the body. When the system is activated during a fight, fight or freeze event, the adrenal glands release adrenaline to energize the body

Parasympathetic nervous system

This calms the body, conserving its energy. It brings the body back down to a relaxed state: rest, or digest. The accelerate heart rate lowers blood pressure, stimulates digestion, processes waste, and calm the body.

Brain

This is the location of most of all information processing. This is comprised of the cortex and subcortical structures carrying out various functions. The nerves of this Are arranged into neural networks.

Spinal Cord

This is the main pathway to and from the brain. This is a two-way connection between the peripheral nervous system and the brain. COLLEGE BOARD: In this is the reflex arc.

Reflex arc

In the spinal cord, this demonstrates how neurons within the central and peripheral nervous system systems work together to respond to stimuli. Three types of neurons work together in the spinal cord to create this; sensor, neurons, motor, neurons, and interneurons.

Endocrine system

This is the body slow, chemical communication system. It is a set of glands that secrete Hormones into the bloodstream. This system includes The hypothalamus, Pituitary gland and the sympathetic nervous system..

Hypothalamus

This is part of both the central nervous system and the endocrine system. This directs the pituitary gland to regulate growth and control other endocrine glands. This helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. Its main function is to maintain the bodies, internal balance (homeostasis). This regulates, the heart rate mood, hunger, and thirst, blood pressure, sleep, cycle, body temperature, and sexual arousal.

Pituitary gland

This is the endocrine systems, most influential gland the “Master gland”. This secretions direct other glands to secrete their hormones.

Adrenal glands

When the sympathetic nervous system is activated during a flight fight or freeze event, this releases adrenaline to energize the body.

Hormones

Outside of the nervous system, this perform action similar to neurotransmitters. This is related to behavior and mental processes. Some include adrenaline, leptin, Ghrelin, melatonin and oxytocin

Adrenaline

Known as epinephrine, As a stress hormone released by the adrenal glands as part of the fight or flight response to physical or mental stress, like fear or injury. It helps the body prepare for dangerous or stressful situations and caused the heart to be faster and gives the person more energy.

Leptin

This is a protein hormone secreted by fat cells. When abundant this causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.

Ghrelin

This is a Hunger-arousing Hormone secreted by an empty stomach.

Melatonin

This is a sleep inducing hormone. The brains pineal Gland decreases as production of this in the morning. increases its production of this in the evenings.

Oxytocin

This is a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that enables contractions associated with birthing milk flow during nursing, and sex. It also promotes para bonding group, cohesion, and social trust. This is associated with positive physical contact (Cuddling, kissing, holding hands), Social bonding (Talking making eye contact, laughing), sex, Breast-feeding and childbirth.

Nervous system vs endocrine system

The first system has neurons releasing neurotransmitters that move across synapses. Neurotransmission is nano fast. The other system has glands secreting hormones that move through the bloodstream. Hormonal secretion Is slower.

Phrenology

In 1800s, Franz Gall Suggested the bumps of the skull represented mental abilities. Theory, the incorrect, nevertheless, proposed that different mental abilities were modular.

Brain lesion

Brain tissue is destroyed and researchers study the impact of functioning.

Brain stimulation

Brain regions are stimulated, electrically, chemically or magnetically and researchers study the impact on functioning.

EEG

A recording of the waves of electronic activity across the brain surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. This helps see brain stimulation, indicating brain functioning.

MEG

A brain imaging technique that measures magnetic field from the brains natural electrical activity. This helps indicate brain functioning.

CT/ CAT

X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer to show a slice of the brain structure; shows structural damage. this brain stimulation shows the structure of the brain.

PET

A visual display of brain activity that detect where a radioactive glucose goes while the brain performs a Given task. Shows activity. This indicates brain functioning.

MRI

A technique that uses magnetic field and radio waves to produce computer generated images of brain anatomy: More detailed than CT scan. This shows the structure of the brain.

fMRI

A measure of blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans to show brain function as well as structure. Shows damage. This indicates both brain functioning and shows the structure of the brain.

Brain stem

(Including the medulla) generally controls basic functioning such as breathing and heart rate. Disconnects your brain to your spinal cord. That is made up of the mid brain, Pons, And the medulla. regulates involuntary actions.

Pons

It is a major pathway for motor and sensory information. Works with the cerebellum and coordinating balance and voluntary movement. Coordinate face and eye movement, Facial sensation, Hearing, And balance. Influences your sleep cycle (sleeping walking dreaming). Releases and regulates the signals that give you the sensation of pain from anywhere in your body below your neck.

Medulla

Essential to survival. Regulates breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and manages other automatic processes such as sneezing, coughing, swallowing, and vomiting. It is crossover point where most movement related nerves in your body crisscross.

Reticular activating system

(Brains reward center) Generally controls some voluntary Movement, eye movement, And some type types of learning, Cognition, And emotion.

Reticular formation

The reticular activating system is a component of this that regulates arousal and sleep-wake Transitions. filters out unnecessary information (Focused awareness).

Cerebellum

Generally controls coordination of muscle movement, balance, and some forms of procedural learning. This is located at the rear of the brain stem. It is responsible for processing sensory input, coordinating voluntary movement and balance, and nonverbal learning and memory.

Limbic system

The four main structures of this system is the Thalamus, Amygdala, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus. This is known as the emotional control center.

Thalamus

At the top of the brain stem. Is it the relay station ‘post office’ of incoming and outgoing sensory information. Receives information from all senses (except smell) and routes the information to the higher brain regions that process vision, sound, taste, and touch. Receives and directs some of the higher brain’s replies to the medulla and cerebellum. Helps with memory, planning, and emotions.

Amygdala

This plays a role in how you experience emotions and feelings, such as anxiety, anger, fear, aggression. Play a role in memory and social interpretation (info about others).

Hippocampus

This is responsible for your ability to form new memories. Store, explicit memories (conscious) of facts and events.process memory from short term memory to long term memory. Contributes to learning.

Hypothalamus

This helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. It’s main function is to maintain the bodies, internal balance (homeostasis). This helps regulate heart rate mood, hunger, and thirst, blood pressure, sleep, cycle, body temperature, and sexual arousal.

Cerebral cortex

This is divided into two hemispheres and includes: The Limbic system (Thalamus hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, amygdala) corpus callosum, the four lobes of the cortex. This is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center. It is divided into four regions called Lobes. Frontal lobe Parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe.

Frontal lobes

This is located just behind the forehead, generally controlled linguistic processing, Higher order thinking, Executive in the prefrontal cortex. This is involved in speaking, motor movements, judgment, and decision-making.

Motor cortex

This is located at the rear of the frontal lobes and controls most types of skeletal movement. This controls voluntary movement.

Broca’s Area

Is located in the left hemisphere on the frontal lobe. It is responsible for speech production as a controls the muscles in the mouth involving speaking.

Broca’s aphasia

Struggle to speak or form sentences.

Prefrontal cortex

Responsible for executive functions like mediating conflicting thoughts, Make choices (right/wrong, good/bad), Predict future events, Govern social controls.

Parietal lobes

This generally controls association areas, which process and organize information. This receives and processes sensory input for touch and body position.

Somatosensory cortex

Processes touch sensitivity. (Goes together with motor cortex). This registers and processes touch and movement sensation.

Temporal lobes

Generally control, auditory, and linguistic processing. They are located on the side of the brain. They receive auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.

Auditory cortex

This receives information from the Ears.

Wernicke’s Area

This is located in the left hemisphere of the temporal lobe. It is responsible for interpreting and comprehending both written and verbal language.

Wernicke’s asphasia

Struggle to understand written and verbal speech.

Occipital lobes

This generally control, visual information processing, and are located on the rear of the brain. This receive visual information, primarily from the opposite visual field.

Visual cortex

Receives information from the eyes.