Universality

Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all

Ekman 1989

Argued that facial expressions are an example of universality

Gender Bias

When one gender is treated in a different way from another

Androcentrism

When ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and so anything which deviates from this is seen as ‘abnormal’

PMS is often thought as a stereotype when in fact is a diagnosable disorder under the DSM-5

Alpha Bias

Psychological theory which suggests a difference between males and females e.g. Wilson’s principle of survival efficacy

Beta Bias

Theories that ignore or minimise the differences between males and females e.g. Freud

Gender Bias

Evaluation: Implications of bias - misleading assumptions of female behaviour// Sexism within research - more likely to be published if highlighting differences between males and females// Reflexivity - psychologists now consider this when conducting research

Cultural Bias

The tendency to ignore the cultural differences and interpret information through the ‘lens’ of our own culture ie. in 1992, 64% of the worlds psychology researchers were American

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own cultures and in extreme cases the superiority of one e.g. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

Cultural Relativism

The idea that norms, values and morals can only be understood within a specific social and cultural context

Berry 1969

Distinguished between etic and emic

Etic

Looks at behaviour outside of a culture and attempts to describe those behvaiours as universal

Emic

Looks at behaviour within a certain culture and describes behaviour within that culture

Cultural Bias

Evaluation: Individualism and collectivism

Relativism vs universality

Unfamiliarity within research tradition

Free Will

The notion that human beings can make choices that are not determined by biological or external forces

Determinism

The idea that behaviour is controlled by internal forces e.g. genetics or external forces e.g. conditioning

Hard Determinism

Implies Free Willis not possible as our behaviour is always by events beyond our control, sometimes called fatalism